CHAPTER SIX - Oxford University Press



CHAPTER 6

What Is the Connection Between Verbal Communication and Culture?

CHAPTER 6 OBJECTIVES AND OUTLINE

Chapter 6 Objectives:

As a result of reading Chapter 6 and participating in related class discussions and activities, you should be able to:

(1) Appreciate the arbitrary yet creative nature of human language;

(2) Realize why language rules often create intercultural bumps and misunderstandings;

(3) Connect the importance of language to its cultural worldviews and everyday social reality;

(4) Compare the linear worldview and the relational worldview as reflected in different language systems;

(5) Understand and provide examples to illustrate low-context and high-context communication characteristics;

(6) Practice verbal tracking, verbal patience, and interpersonal empathy in communicating with nonnative speakers from other cultures; and

(7) Recognize the value of understanding diverse communication styles and learn to code-switch adaptively.

Chapter 6 Outline:

Introduction:

Indigenous people: rooted in particular place in history, traditions, rituals, language, etc.

I. Human Language: Distinctive Features and Rule Patterns

Language: arbitrary symbolic system that labels and categorizes feelings, ideas, etc. (NOTE: This is a brief description; see textbook for complete definitions.)

A. Distinctive Language Features

1. Arbitrariness: words have no innate meaning

2. Abstractness: allows abstract hypothetical thinking

3. Meaning-centeredness: two levels of meaning

a. Denotative: objective, dictionary meaning

b. Connotative: subjective, interpretive meaning

4. Creativity: three elements

a. Productivity: say things never said before

b. Displacement: talk about things far away

c. Meta-communicative: use language to comment on language

B. Multiple Rule Patterns

1. Phonological rules (or phonology): combining phonemes (basic sound units)

2. Morphological rules (or morphology): combining phonemes to make morphemes (smallest units of meaning, a word or part or a word)

3. Syntactic rules (or syntactics): word sequence and grammar practices

4. Semantic rules (semantics): features of meaning attached to words (including two levels: denotative and connotative meanings)

5. Pragmatic rules (pragmatics): contextual rules governing language use

II. Appreciating Diverse Language Functions

A. Cultural Worldview Function

1. Worldview: philosophical outlook or ways of perceiving the world

2. Linear worldview: rational thinking based on objective reality

a. Inductive reasoning: facts and evidence in making a claim

b. Deductive reasoning: conceptual models and theories first, then move to specific points or conclusions

3. Relational worldview: relational loyalty, ingroup dignity, honor, avoids polarized ends

a. Dramatic spiral reasoning: effusive metaphors, stories

b. Understated spiral reasoning: hints, reserved talks, tactful nonverbal gestures

B. Everyday Social Reality Function

1. Language acts as mirror, emphasizes important-unimportant

2. Language categories capture our experience, shape our expectations

C. Cognitive Shaping Function: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity hypothesis): language is “the shaper of ideas”

1. Weak form (supported by research): language helps shape thinking

2. Strong form (not fully supported): language determines thinking

D. Group Membership Function: common language evokes group identity; signals ingroup linkage and outgroup differentiation

E. Social Change Function: humans use social tool of language, cause language changes.

III. Verbal Communication Styles: A General Framework

A. Defining Low-Context and High-Context Interaction Patterns

1. Low-context communication (LCC): intention or meaning expressed through explicit verbal messages

a. Direct, matter of fact tone, assertiveness, speaker-centered

b. Speaker is responsible for a clear message to be decoded easily

2. High-context communication (HCC): intention or meaning conveyed through the context and nonverbal channels

a. Indirect tactful nonverbal tone, diplomatic talk, receiver-sensitive values

b. Listener expected to “read between lines,” inferring nonverbal subtleties that accompany verbal message

B. Direct and Indirect Verbal Styles

1. Mannerism of speaking: verbal style, frames how message interpreted

2. Continuum exists, with direct and indirect at ends

3. Direct: statement in forthright tone clearly reveals speaker’s intentions (Individualistic cultures emphasize direct talk)

4. Indirect: statement in softer tone camouflages speaker’s actual intentions (Collectivistic cultures emphasize indirect talk) (no need for hurt feelings)

C. Self-Enhancement and Self-Humbling Verbal Styles

1. Self-enhancement: draw attention to one’s abilities, accomplishments

2. Self-humbling: modest talk, hesitation, and use of self-deprecation concerning one’s performance

D. Beliefs Expressed in Talk and Silence—differs across cultures and between persons

1. High-context cultures: silence (ma) can make understanding possible

2. Western rhetorical model: silence viewed as “empty pauses” or “ignorant lapses”

IV. Intercultural Reality Check: Do-Ables

When using your native language in communicating with a nonnative speaker:

A. Understand languaculture: emphasizes tie between language and culture

B. Verbal tracking: move beyond accent, pay attention to content, then relational and identity meanings

C. Verbal patience: slow pace, less complexity and restatements; avoid idioms

D. Nonverbal tone of voice: pay attention to yours

E. Multiple modes of presentation: visual representations (pictures, gestures)

F. Master cultural pragmatic rules: know appropriate speaking norms if speaking in a different language

G. Understand HCC, LCC patterns

H. Verbal code-switching: practice this mindfully

CHAPTER 6 CHECK-UP

Check out the following cultural literacy questions and self-assessment questions:

Jeopardy Box Quiz: Can you name the three countries with the most native English-language speakers?

POP-UP ANSWER:

1. the United States

2. the United Kingdom

3. Canada

To see the rest of the top five, check out Jeopardy Box 6.1 in the text on page 112.

Jeopardy Box Quiz: Can you name the top three countries with the most native Spanish-language speakers?

POP-UP ANSWER:

1. Mexico

2. the United States

3. Spain

To see the rest of the top five, check out Jeopardy Box 6.2 in the text on page 113.

Self-Assessment Quiz: Use this quiz to learn about the social change function of language. Can you picture in your mind what a “fireman” or a “mailman” looks like? If so, what gender do you picture them to be?

POP-UP ANSWER:

You most likely pictured a male fireman and a male mailman. Research has demonstrated that using a masculine word to refer to both genders influences receivers to think of male images, not female.

To learn more and to take the complete poll, see my.blog 6.1 in the text on page 122.

Self-Assessment Quiz: Use this quiz to learn about two different kinds of verbal styles.

Choose whether you tend to agree or disagree with the following statements. Can you identify which is low-context and which is high-context verbal style?

1. I feel annoyed if someone does not directly answer my question.

a. Agree

b. Disagree

2. I feel irritated if someone is very blunt with me.

a. Agree

b. Disagree

POP-UP INTERPRETATION:

1a. If you agree, you have a tendency to use a low-context verbal style.

Check out my.blog 6.2 in the text on page 123 for more examples.

POP-UP INTERPRETATION:

1b. If you disagree, you have a tendency not to use a low-context verbal style.

Check out my.blog 6.2 in the text on page 123 for more examples.

POP-UP INTERPRETATION:

2a. If you agree, you have a tendency to use a high-context verbal style.

Check out my.blog 6.2 in the text on page 123 for more examples.

POP-UP INTERPRETATION:

2b. If you disagree, you have a tendency not to use a high-context verbal style.

Check out my.blog 6.2 in the text on page 123 for more examples.

CHAPTER 6 GLOSSARY-MATCHING QUIZ

Match the following five terms with their respective definitions:

Type of rule:

a. Syntactics or syntactic rules

b. Morphology or morphological rules

c. Pragmatics or pragmatic rules

d. Phonology or phonological rules

e. Semantics or semantic rules

___ 1. How combinations of different sounds make up a meaningful word or parts of a word.

___ 2. The features of meaning we attach to words, including denotative and connotative meanings.

___ 3. The accepted procedures for combining the basic sound units of a language.

___ 4. “How to say what to whom and under what situational conditions.”

___ 5. Refers to how words are sequenced together in accordance with grammatical practices of a linguistic community.

POP-UP ANSWER:

1. b

2. e

3. d

4. c

5. a

Match the following terms with their respective definitions or descriptions:

a. Linear worldview

b. Relational worldview

c. Dramatic spiral reasoning

d. Low context communication

e. High context communication

___ 1. “Say what you mean; mean what you say.”

___ 2. “Don’t say anything that will hurt the other’s feelings.”

___ 3. Emphasizes the importance of relational loyalty, extended family connections, ingroup dignity and honor. Includes dramatic spiral reasoning and understated spiral reasoning patterns.

___ 4. Emphasizes rational or analytical thinking based on an objective reality. Includes inductive and deductive reasoning patterns.

___ 5. Use of effusive metaphors, stories, and a wide range of flowery adjectives to reinforce a point.

POP-UP ANSWER:

1. d

2. e

3. b

4. a

5. c

Match the following five terms with their respective definitions:

a. Inductive reasoning

b. Arbitrariness

c. Language

d. Deductive reasoning

e. Abstractness

___ 1. An arbitrary symbolic system that labels and categorizes feelings, experiences, ideas, objects, and many other phenomena.

___ 2. The feature that allows humans to engage in hypothetical thinking.

___ 3. Placing importance on facts and evidence to make a claim.

___ 4. Reflected by the fact that the words strung together have no innate meaning.

___ 5. Placing importance on conceptual models or theories and then moving to specific points or conclusions.

POP-UP ANSWER:

1. c

2. e

3. a

4. b

5. d

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW QUIZ

Multiple Choice: Select and click the BEST ANSWER from the choices available.

1. Francis has decided to write a history of his family’s immigration to England. Because language is _____________, he can write about the past.

a. arbitrary

b. abstract

c. meaning-centered

d. creative

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. abstract (p. 113)

2. A(n) ____________ worldview reflects a holistic reasoning pattern and avoids using polarized ends such as good/evil and young/old.

a. linear

b. relational

c. inductive

d. deductive

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. relational (p. 119)

3. The word “hit” has many definitions, but when Fatima hears the word used with regard to musical hits, it brings many good thoughts and feelings due to her experiences with listening to music. This illustrates the __________ meaning of a word.

a. connotative

b. inductive

c. deductive

d. denotative

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. connotative (p. 113)

4. The notion that language functions to emphasize what is considered “important” or “interesting” in our social environment is a description of which function of language?

a. Worldview function

b. Everyday social reality function

c. Cognitive function

d. Linguistic relativity function

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. Everyday social reality function (pp. 119-120))

5. Felicia uses incorrect grammatical structure when she refers to a boy’s sailor suit by saying “Handsome outfit, that.” She is violating which rule of language?

a. Phonology

b. Morphology

c. Syntactics

d. Semantics

POP-UP ANSWER:

c. Syntactics (p. 116)

6. When Farrell, who is from Georgia, pronounces the word “father,” it sounds noticeably different from Frank, who is from Boston. This describes the language feature of a(n) ____________.

a. individualist

b. collectivist

c. accent

d. relational worldview

POP-UP ANSWER:

c. accent (p. 115)

7. The word “rap” has as one of its dictionary definitions, “to tap or knock.” It also describes a particular music style. These two dictionary definitions illustrate that words have ______________ meanings.

a. connotative

b. inductive

c. deductive

d. denotative

POP-UP ANSWER:

d. denotative (p. 113)

8. A(n) ____________ is defined as a group of individuals who share a common set of norms and rules regarding appropriate communication practices.

a. speech community

b. worldview

c. co-culture

d. collectivism

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. speech community (p. 117)

9. A(n) _________ worldview emphasizes rational thinking that is based on an objective reality.

a. linear

b. relational

c. inductive

d. deductive

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. linear (p. 119)

10. U.S. individuals tend to use ___________ while Japanese individuals tend to use _________.

a. high-context communication; low-context communication

b. low-context communication; high-context communication

c. relational worldview; linear worldview

d. deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. low-context communication; high-context communication (p. 123)

11. A cultural community that uses talk to “break the ice” and reserves silence for their most intimate relationships is most likely to use _______________ communication.

a. high-context

b. low-context

c. deductive

d. dramatic spiral

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. low-context (p. 127)

12. When Frankie talks to her roommate, she speaks in a matter-of-fact tone and states her message clearly. What kind of verbal style does this reflect?

a. Direct

b. Indirect

c. Understated

d. High-context

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. Direct (p. 125)

True/False: In order to identify the best answer, consider whether each statement is true (i.e., accurate) or false (i.e., inaccurate). Click either “a” for “True” or “b” for “False.”

1. Inductive reasoning reflects a linear worldview and deductive reasoning reflects a relational

worldview.

a. True

b. False

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. False (p. 119)

2. The linguistic relativity hypothesis states that language is relative, or arbitrary, and is not

linked to culture.

a. True

b. False

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. False (p. 121)

3. The syntactic rules of a language refer to “how to say what to whom and under what

conditions.”

a. True

b. False

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. False (p. 116)

4. The self-enhancement verbal style involves drawing attention to one’s credentials, accomplishments and abilities.

a. True

b. False

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. True (p. 126)

5. Black English (Ebonics) is a distinctive language that is governed by rules with specific

historical derivations.

a. True

b. False

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. True (p. 121)

CHAPTER 6 INTERCULTURAL WEB SURFING

Check out the following Internet sites that are relevant to this chapter:

View the Internet language dictionary:



More information on the Hawaiian Pidgin English Bible:



Interested in proverbs from other countries?



For information about languages and language families around the world:



Film:

The Joy Luck Club (1993). This drama/comedy explores two generations of Chinese American mother-daughter relationships in San Francisco.

Book:

Robert Lane Greene (2011). You Are What You Speak. Grammar, grouches, language laws, and the politics of identity. Mr. Greene’s basic argument is that language doesn't denote its “decline”; rather, languages become simpler and more flexible in order to spread and succeed.

CHAPTER 6 INTERCULTURAL TOUR

Check out the following intercultural scenario:

(NOTE: See “Chapter 6 Class Handouts” for a printable version.)

“ROOMMATES” VIDEO ACTIVITY: COMPARING LCC AND HCC

1. Click the link and have some fun watching the short video titled, “Roommates.”

LINK to “ROOMMATES” Video clip

Alternatively, the video is also accessible through the following link:



Password: UnderstandingIC (this password IS case-sensitive)

2. Print out the “Roommates” Video Activity Sheet.

—In the box, take notes from the text describing characteristics of low context communication (LCC) and high context communication (HCC).

3. Watch the video again.

—Use the area labeled “Notes on Roommates Video” section to identify instances of LCC and HCC.

—Describe what was said and/or done—write down specific words and behaviors.

4. Finally, look over your sheet and consider the following questions:

a. Which person tended to use LCC? HCC?

POP-UP ANSWER:

a. The European American tended to use LCC. The Filipino American roommate tended to use HCC.

b. Which Reality Check: Do-Able(s) from Chapter 6 could the LCC person have used to make this conversation go better?

POP-UP ANSWER:

b. There are many Do-Ables that could be applied. The LCC person could have understood that her roommate may tend to use HCC or indirect verbal style. She could also practice verbal tracking, paying attention to not only the content meaning (the library is so noisy), but also to the relational meanings (a roommate interested in “not saying anything that could hurt others’ feelings” may not feel comfortable asking directly for her roommate to be quiet so that she could continue studying).

c. Which Reality Check: Do-Able(s) from Chapter 6 could the HCC person have used to make this conversation go better?

POP-UP ANSWER:

c. There are many Do-Ables that could be applied. The HCC person could have understood that her roommate may tend to use LCC or direct verbal style and could have answered directly (“No, I really prefer to study and I’m wondering if you would be willing to go over to his place so that I could study here in quiet?”)

d. If you were a third roommate in the scene and you have all the wonderful intercultural communication knowledge gained from this class, what would you say/do to help this interaction go more smoothly and satisfactorily?

POP-UP ANSWER:

d. What do you think? Could you write some script lines you would insert as the third roommate during the interaction? Compare your script lines with another student; there are many ways to practice intercultural communication flexibility!

CHAPTER 6 CLASS HANDOUTS

Note: Your instructor may ask you to download, print out, and/or e-mail the following class handouts for this chapter:

”ROOMMATES” VIDEO ACTIVITY SHEET

NAME: ____________________________________

“ROOMMATES” VIDEO ACTIVITY

Low Context Communication: High Context Communication:

NOTES ON “ROOMMATES” VIDEO:

Low Context Communication: High Context Communication:

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