Aceh.b-cdn.net



The Nature of ReligionReligion as a worldviewCentral commonality to all world religions is the belief in the SUPERNATURAL DIMENSION Is the most significant element of a religious worldview is this belief in a divine being or power, which is greater than humankind and the natural world.It is responsible for the creation of the world, for providing a moral framework for human life and being the ultimate destiny of a human person at the end of their moral lifeDifferent responses to Supernatural Dimension:- Semitic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) – believe that there is an only single divine being or power. Also known as MONOTHEISM - Two eastern religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) – derive from an understanding of multiple divine beings or powers. Also known as POLYTHEISMTranscendent and Immanent religious worldviewTranscendentImmanentThe belief in a divine being or power whose existence goes beyond human limitations and exists beyond the known universe.Christianity, Judaism, Islam are transcendentExample: Muslims believe that the will of Allah has been revealed to the Prophet Mohammed and is contained in the writing of the Quran. This is seen as transcendent because the divine being is separate and outside of the human life and revealed to humankind through an intermediary. The belief that supernatural being dwells within human being, nature and sacred places.Buddhism and Hinduism are immanentExample: Buddhists follow the Eightfold Path prescribed by the Buddha in order to reach enlightenment. This is an immanent religion because the divine power is believed to be found within the human and awaits discovery through following the prescribed path Characteristics of Religion Beliefs and believers Sacred Texts and Writings EthicsRituals and ceremoniesKey tenants, doctrines or values which is sustaining to all religions.It underpins the religious practice of a particular religion for believers. Beliefs – Ideas accepted as something considered as real or true. It expresses the self-understanding of the traditionBelievers – Adherent to the religion, believe and follow the religion.Most important part of the religion and hence, central to the religion.Sacred Texts contain sacred stories explain through historical or non-historical means, how people are connected to this supernatural dimension.Written, visual or oral texts containing truths of a particular religion and provides guidance.Sacred – in the sense of revelation of having a direct relationship with the transcendent (divine power/s or being/s beyond the human)Reasoning behind moral decision making.Ethics and precepts (principles) are laws that embody the key doctrinal tenants allowing for the practical application.Offers a system of standards, clarifying right and wrong. Moral principles governing a person or group behaviour providing guidelines to proper and improper behaviour. Practical expressions of the aspectsInvolves prescribed words and actions along with symbols reflecting understanding of sacred dimension = religious meaning.Overall, giving a greater understanding of the ultimate reality. Contribution of religion IndividualSociety and culture Personal Search for Meaning: human experience is characterised by a search for the understanding of those great questions. Those questions include: origin, purpose and destinyEthical Guidance: sought out by people for guidance in the field of ethics, which enables individuals to act in a morally correct manner. Concerns range from bioethics and sexual morality to issues of social concern.Sense of Belonging: strongest desire that exist in human experiences is the need to feel a sense of belonging. Religions provide a sense of communityRitual Meaning: marks important stages in human experience. Include the birth of a child, the coming of age, a graduation, etc. Such events are often ritualised in religious traditions where ceremonies take place to mark these important events.Interaction between culture and religion:close reciprocal relationship between the areas of religion and culture. Religion is a formative influence on culture given the dynamic every changing nature of culture. Profoundly influenced by its cultural context as it cannot be expressed other than through a particular cultural setting and context.Religion as a conservative influence on society: Exert a conservative influence on society in areas regarding sexual morality and bioethics. Often seen to be quite clearly trying to prevent society from moving away from traditional values.Religion as a progressive influence on society: Emphasis on human dignity, it can be readily seen as proactive in areas e.g. the advocacy of refugee and indigenous rights, protection of the environment and opposition to military action. Instills a sense of justice in prominent social debates as a way of attempting to change community views to embrace a new approachAustralian Aboriginal Beliefs and Spiritualities - The Dreaming Nature of the Dreaming Origins of the Universe Sacred SitesStories of the Dreaming Symbolism and Art The Dreaming is a term referring to the concept underpinning all beliefs and practices in Aboriginal communities representing all knowledge and understanding among Aboriginal societies.The Dreaming includes explanations of the origins of the universe. That is, how the world came into being through the actions of their ancestral spirit beings, the creation of the physical world, the animals and plants which inhabit this world.The Dreaming is not regarded as a myth but a metatemporal concept incorporating the past, present and future reality as a complete and present reality. The Dreaming is inextricably connected to the land as the land is the physical medium where the Dreaming is lived and communicated. All land is important to Aboriginals, particular sites known as sacred sites, have a special significance for particular Aboriginal groups as they’re connected with different events in the Dreaming. Particular groups of Aboriginal people have special responsibilities to care for and to learn from these sites. For example, carrying out prescribed rituals such as balance rites. Stories of the Dreaming hold truth and explain the beginnings of the world that are passed down to teach law and responsibilities to Aboriginals.The basis of religious beliefs, law, ceremonies and all knowledge come from their sacred stories. The telling and learning Dreaming stories is a lifelong process revealed through many aspects of Aboriginal societies such as kinship, song, dance, art, ritual and story.Some art depict secret sacred sites available only to the selected group allowed. Symbolism in art for e.g. explains creation of the natural world and the laws which stem from this. Teaches Aboriginal children about right and wrong behaviour in society. Symbolism in art can’t be taken as face value for Aboriginal art - esoteric having multiple layers of meaning. 1st layer - open and accessible to all people2nd layer - not so obvious and requires experience3rd layer - secret and sacred only available to Aboriginal ancestorsDiversity of the Dreaming for Aboriginal peoplesImportance of the Dreaming for the life of Aboriginal people There is approx. 900 Aboriginal nations within Australia and subsequently there is an enormous diversity in which the Dreaming is expressed. Each Aboriginal nation has its own dialect and every language is esoteric (intended to be understood by a small number of people) and every nation’s understanding of Aboriginal spirituality will vary. Each Aboriginal nation has its own boundaries and subsequently different Dreaming stories applicable to these boundaries. Groups that are geographically close will share common elements. The belief in notion of the Dreaming is the overriding commonality binding different Aboriginal nations together. The Dreaming is important for Aboriginals as they are connected to it spiritually providing knowledge on all aspects of Aboriginal life. Establishes the rules linking the relationship between Aboriginal people, the land and all things associated with Aboriginal people.Inextricable Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity(Inextricable = that which cannot be disentangled or loosed)- The land is the core of all spirituality- The is the ancestors and as long as the land lives, so doe the ancestors- The is not just soil or rocks or minerals but a whole environment and is sustained by people and culture- For the Aboriginal people, they belief in the land, gives them their identity- The journeys of the Ancestral beings shaped the landscape and gave birth to its people – journeys that are re-enacted in the rituals and ceremonies of the people and expressed in their art.- The importance of this connection is between the things of creation which is expressed thought totemism- To Aboriginal people the land is alive with power and the ancestors who live in it- Ownership of the land is based upon the division and distribution of ritual responsibility for land, rather than upon rights to use and occupy the land. JudaismAbraham and the Covenant Life of Abraham Sacred history of Judaism begins with Abraham, the first father or ‘Patriarch’ of the Jewish peopleResponding to God’s command, Abraham left his homeland in Mesopotamia and embarked on a journey to an unknown place, later revealed to be the land of Canaan (Genesis 12-15). Abraham’s trust in God and his obedience to God’s command to undertake the journey and to implement the rite of circumcision, are fundamental to Judaism.Essentially, Abraham’s religion was a simple one. The Abrahamic belief reflected a semi-nomadic lifestyle and promoted a personal relationship between one man and one God. This relationship was ‘covenant’ – that is, it was based on a covenant, an agreement between the divine and the human. Covenant with the Patriarchs Covenant with the PatriarchsPatriarch means “the forefather of Jews”. The Patriarchs of Judaism are Abraham, his son Isaac and his son, Jacob. The covenant of the Patriarchs is an act which welds together God and the chosen people, the Hebrews. Abraham’s Covenant: The next expression is in relation to Abraham and occurs in a series of encounters with God (Genesis 12-17). Begins with the call of Abraham (Genesis 12:1) he’s called by God to leave his own territory and move to the land shown to him by God. The call includes - promise that he will become a great nation. Genesis 15 shows a further encounter where God assures Abraham that his descendants would number the stars in the sky (Genesis 15:5).The first element - Abraham’s descendants would be numerous and would lead to the formation of a great nation. The second element - possession of a promised land. This land is the biblical land of Canaan -> modern day state of Israel and the Palestinian territories. The Covenant is seen in effect -> birth of Isaac.Isaac’s Covenant: Found in Genesis 17 has Abraham being called to walk in the presence of God and be blameless. In Genesis verse 9-14 Abraham is commanded that he and his descendants must keep the Covenant with God throughout the ages and that circumcision is to be sign of this Covenant. The elements of the Covenant are confirmed in response to Abraham’s obedience in relation to the sacrifice of his son Isaac. Jacob’s Covenant: Jacob is the father of the 12 tribes of Israel - these are the loose confederation, which are united under the monarchy of Saul, David and Solomon. Fidelity to the Covenant: The land of Canaan is the land ultimately conquered and settled by Joshua and the tribes of Israel after the death of Moses. Overtime the land has been threatened and captured by various invading forces yet it has remained an important element in the Jewish understand of the Covenant. The Patriarchs: God’s promise to Abraham was renewed with his son Isaac and again with Isaac’s son Jacob. Jacob (Israel) lent his name to a nation. Abraham’s steadfastness to his God demonstrated in his willingness to sacrifice his son is a model for the steadfast love that Jews are expected to hold for their God. It is from this promise made to the Patriarchs that a great nation and one of the world’s great religions flowed. The theme of the Covenant begun with the Patriarchs and continued in Jewish history with the furthered development of the covenant through Moses. Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah- Begins with the Hebrews in Egypt following the story of Joseph, having once enjoyed a favoured status in Egypt, they have been reduced to the situation of slaves. The oppression of Hebrews reached a highpoint when the Pharaoh decreed the execution of any male child born to the Hebrews. This is the environment where Moses was born.- God called Moses through the burning bush for his mission to liberate the Hebrew people from their captivity in Egypt showing God’s lament for the suffering of the Hebrews in Egypt and God’s proclamation of their rescue and deliverance to “a land flowing with milk and honey”.- The 9 plagues occurred and the 10th plague - death of the first born- Hebrew were to prepare to escape in haste. They sacrificed a lamb and daub blood on doorposts designating it belonged to the Hebrews so when the Angel of the Lord passed houses that belonged to Hebrews, the first-born would be spared.Passover ritual –- In Judaism “passing over” of the Hebrew households during the death of the first born, one of the most significant occasions in the Jewish calendar.- After the final plague, Pharaoh relented and allowed the Hebrews to go free then later changed his mind and sent his army in pursuit of the Hebrews.- It is a defining moment in the Jewish tradition and foundational. In the moment of liberation, the Hebrews experience the saving action of God - God’s intervention in human history and God’s concern for those who are oppressed.- In and through the Exodus, the understanding of God’s intervention as a saving action overcoming oppression and leading to freedom. It shows God’s concern for the poor and disadvantaged. - Exodus significantly defines the ethics of Judaism in rejecting oppression and working towards the liberation of all people.- Exodus Ch19, the climatic experience of Moses’ encounter with God at Sinai begins with a reiteration of the covenant made with Abraham.- Great theophany where Moses encounters God face to face on Mount Sinai where Moses received the 10 commandments.- These 10 commandments are the beginning - Sinai law. This law is the Torah - the very heart of the Jewish tradition. It spells out the expected response of the Jews to the requirements of the Covenant.- Numerous laws governing all aspects of community life follow the 10 commandments immediately.- The chapters of laws are the 613 mitzvot of the Torah (including the 10 commandments). The 613 mitzvot of the Torah form the basis for the actions of Jewish people relating every aspect of life.Modern Judaism Conservative Judaism· Began in Germany in the mid to late 19th as a rejection towards Reform (Progressive) Judaism and its explicit and outright rejection of halakhic practice.· The core belief is that the ritual law whilst binding is open to interpretation and it is up each new generation to make the halakhic law applicable to the age.· Conservative Judaism believes that the interpretation of these laws is ever evolving and capable of being adjusted to contemporary needs.· The variant joined with Reform Judaism in some of its reforms such as ordaining women as Rabbis and cantors. Other distinguishing features include the fact that it holds services in the vernacular and includes prayers in the vernacular at other times when most of the service is in Hebrew.· It also emphasises the importance of the land of Israel and the continuation of the Jewish tradition. Orthodox Judaism· Orthodox Judaism is characterised by a strict observance of the commandments as they see these mitzvot as the direct will of God· There are two distinct groups within Orthodox Judaism:§ Modern Orthodoxy is a strand of Judaism which while maintain Orthodox requirements seeks to live as part of the modern world§ Ultra-Orthodox believes that the only way to ensure the survival of the Jewish people and its religion is to impose a strict separation of Jews from participating with secular society. An example is the Hasidic Jews· Hasidic Jews are recognisable by their distinctive dress which include long black coats, round black hats, beards and side locks. Baal Shem Tov founded Hasidim in the 18th century among Jews who lived in ghettos and who were poor and illiterate as a result of centuries of persecution.· Modern Orthodox communities will be found involved in a range of professions and involved in most aspects of modern community life. They also seek to maintain observance if the Torah through carefully attending to the dietary, ritual and ethical requirements of the tradition.Progressive Judaism· Also known as Reform Judaism, developed in the 19th century, Germany as a result of the experience of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment)· Reform Judaism is characterised by its rejection of the concept of divine revelation as a direct dictation of the Tenach by God.· This is the notion that the Written Law is the literal word of God and similarly, that the Oral Law is an extension of this divine revelation.· They hold the belief that the Torah was written by divinely inspired human beings. The implication of this core belief is that the Torah is inspirational and instructional but not binding in a literal word of God.· His amounted to a movement away from strict halakhic observance - this encompassed a broad spectrum of laws regulating dietary requirements, sexual and familial purity. It also formalised the existence of a priestly caste and codes of dress.· Innovations made by Reform Judaism include introducing religious service in the vernacular of the community instead of Hebrew and the men and the women sitting together during worship.Principal Beliefs Belief in a single God who is the creator and ruler of the universe God is One- Is central to Judaism- Has multiple nuances:§ Only one God§ God is indivisible§ God is unique- Reflected in the prayer - the Shema, which may be described as Israel’s declaration of faith (Deuteronomy 6:4)- Reflects upon Judaism’s monotheistic nature, which rejects any form of idolatry.God is eternal- Beliefs that God has always existed and always will exist- God is the source of creation then God must also have existed before the dawn of creation- Belief is also a statement about God’s relationship with creationGod is Omnipresent- Establishes that God is everywhere- Highlights that God is intimately concerned with humankind and human concerns- Is seen most powerfully in the account of the Exodus where God liberates the Hebrew people from slavery in EgyptGod is Omnipotent- Teaches that he is all powerful and hence all knowing (e.g. Jeremiah 32:19)- Recognised that there is nothing that God cannot achieve and nothing that God cannot preventGod is Pure in Spirit- God cannot be described as having a face- Spirit is manifested throughout the universe, thus human beings can not come to an understanding of the nature of God through direct means, that is knowing God directly; rather, through indirect means or through mediated knowledgeConcept of moral law prescribed by God (Divinely Inspired) Jews believe that God gave the world a code of ethics which are intended to guide human kind into ethical choice in keeping with their dignity as God’s creation.Judaism is essentially a practical religion – it is lived through observance of the law that God has revealed There is no sense of an ever-evolving code of ethics in the sense that the code will need to be expanded beyond it original form in light of changing circumstances.Orthodox Jews believe that God has laid down a set of laws which apply to an infinite number of situations and will continue to applicable to future generations. Us to ensure that human beings live in such a manner so as to enhance and no diminish their own God given dignity or the dignity of another. Most basic formulation of the moral law is found in the Ten Commandments which proves for a way of relating to one another that does not do harm to or undermine the dignity of the otherMoral law does not expect Jews to live by 613 mitzvoth but some do apply to everyoneThe moral law revealed by God is expected to apply to all people, while some aspects are applicable to the Covenant people of God, the Jews. The idea of the Covenant Importance of the Covenant cannot be overestimated because it is the living expression of the relationship between God and the people of Israel.The expressions of the Covenant in the Tanakh essentially follow the same pattern: Being by describing/recalling God’s great acts in the events of the everyday lives of the people They contain commands for the peopleConclude with a list of blessings/cursesBrings freedom to choose their own destiny under His law, in return it commands the highest standard of social duty and personal responsibility.The maintenance of the Covenant is done by following these laws to ensure the Jewish tradition is kept aliveThe establishment of the Covenant is the ultimate expression of God’s underlying love for humanity – God always remains faithful regardless of whether the people are faithful God is always ready to embrace the people even when they turn their backs on GodSacred Texts and Writings The Hebrew Bible (The Tanakh)- Made to clarify the meaning of the covenantal relationship between God and the Jewish people- Teach them how to life ethical and moral lives through laws (halakhah)- Gives the Jewish an identity- Comprises of 24 books and are sectioned into 3 categoriesTorah (Pentateuch)- Believed that Moses received this scripture from God in Hebrew over a period of 120 days and in 70 languages.- 613 mitzvot, 10 of which are the 10 commandments- This is the core of Judaism and is a symbol of Jewish identity. Without it there would be no Judaism.- 5 books -> Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Contains the history from creation to the exile from the land of Canaan.- Partly read on Mondays and Thursdays and is fully read on Saturday (shabbat)- They are dressed in beautiful armourNevi’im (Prophets)- Includes Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, which is made up of the early prophets. Others include Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel who are later prophets.- These books are mainly prophetic and teach morals and ethics.- Reminds people of the blessings and curses associated with the covenant.- Read every SabbathKetubim (Writings)- Contains the psalms of David, Solomon’s Proverbs, the Five Scrolls, the books of Ezra etc.- Referred to as ‘Wisdom literature’- Read at certain festivals and are hymns and psalms praising God. The Talmud- Collection of traditions, customs and laws that develops and interprets the Torah by applying it to the situations of everyday life.- Comes in two versions:The Jerusalem Talmud (4th century CE)They Babylonian Talmud (5th century CE)- A simplified version (Shulchan Aruch) was made for the lay people at home. The Talmud was closed in 500CE.The Mishnah- Earlier part of the Talmud meaning ‘repetition’. It records the opinions of the Tanami (learned rabbis) who interpreted the original Torah. This was discussed by a further group of Rabbis called Amoraim - Covers subjects of seasonal festivals, the rights of the poor, the laws governing marriage, divorce and civil.- Expands on Torah laws and explains how to follow them.The Gemara- To further explain the conclusions of the correct law. Was made through detailed discussions called the Gemara (complication) and it explains what was believed to be the origins of halakha and Mishnah All scriptures made for: Tikkun olam- repairing the world. Core Ethical Teachings The commandments of the Torah The fundamental source of ethical guidance for Jews is the Torah which encompasses the Written and Oral law. Jewish ethics is derived from the covenantal relationship where they were protected and taught their responsibilities towards God and other people. 613 mitzvot (Mitzvot - Keeping the commandments of God)10 commandments (Decalogue)Oral Torah - Offers the broadest application of Jewish ethical principles and underpin all other elements. - It represents the foundational tenets of Jewish ethics. - The 613 mitzvot consists both positive (commands to perform an act) and negative mitzvot (commands to refrain from performing an act).- Regarded as the distillation of the 613 mitzvot. - The 10 commandments consist of the positive and negative mitzvot. - The first 5 commandments deal with the relationship between God and the people of Israel (Hebrews), formulated as positive and affirmative commandments. - The next 5 commandments are concerned with the relationship between individuals and their community. These are framed in terms of what one shouldn’t do - negative commandments.- The oral torah provides guidelines for the detailed application of the broad principles of the 613 mitzvot to the day-to-day life of Jews. - Ongoing Rabbinic discussion ensures that the core tenets of Jewish ethics can be prudently applied to changing circumstances. The prophetic vision - social justice and Tikkun Olam (the repair of the world)Prophetic traditionA prophet was defined as one who passes God’s message on to the rest of the community. Prophets were individuals that were called by God to proclaim the message that people were straying from the path laid down by the Torah.Prophets advocated a pro-active stance to reforming social structures emphasising the themes of justice, equality and peace where they were considered as second important comparing to the observance of law and ritual.Prophets were concerned with bettering the plight of the poor, the needy and the oppressed challenging the authority figures of society.Gemilut - chasidim Tikkun OlamTzedakah or ‘hidden charity’Bal Tashkit, ‘do not destroy’Acts of loving kindness performed for no return for example, giving hospitality to strangers, comforting the mourner, visiting the sick and assisting a poor or orphaned bride. It is identified as the characteristic that encapsulates the Jewish identity.Gemilut chasidim is intimately tied with the notion of leading a righteous life and having a good heart which are prerequisites of being a truly devout individual.Definition - Repair of the worldIt is the notion that if a person saves another human being, it is as if the person that person had saved the whole world.It is significant in that it is the overarching principle of tikkun olam in Jewish ethics intimately connected with the idea of social justice. All individuals have the dual responsibility of rectifying inequalities in society helping the poor and needy acting as a steward caring for the earth.The aim of ‘tukkun olam’ - achieve a perfected world, or ‘haMascheach”Tikkun Olam is the underlying motivation behind social action and volunteer projects that work towards the repair of the world through human action. Aiding people to take responsibility for their world.Orthodox Jews believe that performing mitzvot is a form of Tikkun Olam and will hasten the coming of the messianic age. All Jews are required to tzedakah within where they are reasonable for each individual as part of the process of seeking a just world.Tzedakah stresses the importance of the means by which one gives charity. Those who practice Tzedakah hide their identity so that the recipients don’t feel ashamed when they meet their benefactors at social or communal functions. Prohibits the unnecessary destruction of God’s creation as another person will not be able to utilise God’s gifts to the worldThis notion is intimately connected with modern ecological concerns emphasising the importance of human stewardship over the earth. The book of proverbs - wisdom, righteousness, purity and generosity of spiritThe book of Proverbs is one of the most significant collections within the genre of Wisdom literature ascribed to King Solomon.The book of Proverbs is a collection of short, pithy statements which offer practical and simple advice on how to live a moral life and behave prudently encouraging moral and upright behaviour. It is a collection of ethical instructions related to practical living and everyday concerns. The Ketuvim section of the Tanakh is not used as a source Halacha but reflects Jewish values e.g. the Book of Proverbs.WisdomRighteousnessPurityGenerosity of spiritGod is the source of wisdom. Wisdom is also the means by which a person comes to know God.Wisdom is a powerful source that will bring well being to those who seek it. (Proverbs 24:5)A person who lives righteously and with integrity will live a happy life regardless of their situation (Proverbs 19:1)A person’s lack of integrity or faith with ultimately lead to their ruin (Proverbs 11:3)The tongue of a righteous person is choice silver, but the heart of the wicked is minute (Proverbs 10:20)Purity is discussed in the Book of Proverbs from the perspective of a man speaking to another man.Purity which is linked to integrity is a virtue that has true value and hence should be praised (Proverbs 11:4)Generosity of spirit involves helping society’s poor and vulnerable (Proverbs 24:10)God will bless those who are generous to the poor and needy, while those who do not will suffer negative consequence as a result of their selfishness (Proverbs 28:27)Importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents Jews are expected to place considerable emphasis on the extensive ethical teachings of the tradition in making informed moral choices. The general ethical direction in the life of a Jewish person is determined by the 10 commandments. The general themes of righteousness, purity and justice underpin the specific halakhic laws that guide Jewish ethical decision making.Proverbs divides its message between the good actions required of a good King and those required of a good Jew. At times, the concepts of king and good Jew are interchangeable. Kindness and loyalty within the community are the important aspects of the ethics of Judaism, and wisdom and right behaviour are celebrated. The goodwill towards others promoted by the ethical teachings of Judaism as contained in the Torah, the prophetic vision, the idea of tikkun olam and the book of proverbs ensure a safe and protective Jewish community and a place in the world where common laws and ideals encourage close bonds between individuals. Observance ShabbatThe practice of shabbat comes from the Bible where God rested on the 7th day after creating the world and Jews imitate this by resting on the seventh day.Shabbat is described in Rabbinic literature as 1 of the 3 ‘pillars of Judaism’ (the other 2 being Kashrut - dietary laws - and laws of family relationships)Shabbat is the most significant liturgical event of the week as it reminds the Jewish people of the greatness of God in creating the world and it also reminds the Jewish people of the Covenant between God and the people of Israel.Shabbat starts on a Friday when it gets dark and is a day of rest where no work is allowed (except saving a life). Muktzeh are utensils that can’t be handled on the Sabbath. Families will always eat together on Shabbat. Sunset from Friday to sunset on Saturday.Before sunset on Friday, the house is cleaned and special food is prepared.Everyone stops their work, adults come home from work early to celebrate when the sun goes down.‘Work’ (melachah) refers to creative tasks or exercising control over the environment. There are 39 defined categories of work that are identified.Candles are lit and wine and bread are blessedThe requirements for keeping the Sabbath: “Remember the Sabbath day (Exodus 20:8) - refrain from all forms of work“Keep the Sabbath holy” (Deuteronomy 5:12) - reciting the Kiddush over a cup of wineJust before the Sabbath begins, the wife lights 2 candles. The 1st candle represents the injunction to keep the Sabbath and the 2nd is to represent the commandment to remember the Sabbath. The wife then prays for the welfare of her husband and children over the lit candles. After lighting, she waves her hands over the candles, welcoming shabbat. She then covers her eyes to not see the candles and recites the blessing:Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe,who has sanctified us with His commandments andcommanded us to light the Shabbat candles. She then uncovers her eyes and looks at the candles, completing the mitzvah of lighting the candles.A short synagogue service is held to mark the beginning of the Sabbath.The celebration that takes place on the Friday of the Sabbath is the shabbat dinner. It takes place at home with family and friends. The table is laid with 2 loaves “hallot”, like the candles it represents the dual Shabbat commandments to keep and remember the Sabbath. The blessing of the wine is called “Kiddush”, they drink the “Kiddush” from a special cup which represents the plagues and the Passover. The Father blesses the children in order of age before the Kiddush is recited over the wine. “Gladdens the heart”.The bread (traditional braided loaves of bread) that is eaten on Shabbat is called “Challah”. They also say prayers and blessings to their children. Men and boys wear a headscarf called a “Tallit” and they also wear a skullcap called a “Kippah”.On the following day, 2 meals are eaten, one after the morning synagogue service and the second is in the afternoon generally with coffee and cake. Saturday morning is usually spent in Torah study at the synagogue - reading a specified segment of the Torah.The recitation of the prayer, Havdalah (“division” or “separation”) ceremony takes place to mark the end of the Shabbat celebration at sunset featuring the a plaited candle, wine and sweet-smelling spices so that the pleasantness of the Shabbat ‘lingers’ in the work week. It is the recitation praising God for creating distinctions. Shabbat is characterised by pleasurable activities such as singing, eating and time with the family. Usually Jews attend the synagogue on the Shabbat and many study the Torah.Christianity Origins The historical and cultural context in which Christianity began Palestine and the Romans:Began in Palestine (Jews considered this as the promised land) Lack of unity due to the disagreement of the leadership of the religion caused the oppression from Romans and Greeks.Jesus is Christianity’s central figure and was considered the messiah for some Jewish people such as John the Baptist.Because of the desired location of Christianity, the land was fought over by Babylon, Persia, Rome and the Greeks.The Jews were being persecuted by the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Greeks and finally the Romans and therefore awaited a Messiah (as prophecies stated they would get one e.g. Isaiah 9:6-7) to lead them out of slavery and to freedom.Palestine became a roman territory and was split between Roman rulers. Pontius Pilate allowed the Jews to do their everyday thing.Priests (Sanhedrin) took over the Jewish religion and controlled it.These priests had much wealth and took money from the Jews at the temple through taxes. Etc. Jesus Christ - founder of ChristianityBorn in Palestine 4BCE, grew up in Nazareth (small village in Galilee) lived and died as a JewSought to renew Judaism by opposing the legalism of Judaism and returning to the covenant. Brief biography can be found in the Gospels He travelled the countryside for 3 years teaching any who would listen and healing those who believed in him. (preaching) John the Baptist witnessed the holy spirit descending into him claiming him as the Messiah He withdrew to the desert to contemplate his responsibilities and accepting his destiny. Called his first disciples at the lake of Galilee with the fishermen: “Follow me and I will make you become fishers of men” (Mark 1:16-20) He made parables to teach people based on the type of people he was talking to. This was to capture their attention with something familiar through symbolic stories. He performed miracles such as changing water to wine (nature), raised people from the dead (healing) etc. Wasn’t self-serving and attention seeking, rather wanting people to follow him for faith. Religious and political opposition increased due to his large numbers of followers. Important/principal events of his life:Palm Sunday The last supperHis arrest and appearance before PilateCarrying his crossDeath and resurrectionAscension He is a model for Christian life through his embodiment of the reign of God.Announced the reign of God as the realisation of God’s vision or dream for the world. Preaches of love, values, justice and peace and was very keen in the service of others. Had a prayerful nature and was in frequent communication with GodThe beatitudes and the commandment of love highlight attitude of serviceStrong ethics of standing up for the poor and disadvantaged Religious observance needed for the cause of harsh oppression Ever willing to forgive, shown in the forgiveness of disciples after abandoning him. Willingness to forgive seen in the lord’s prayer. Jesus as the MessiahThe Jews believed Jesus was the messiah who was sent to free them He would return the Jews to power in their homeland and rebuild their temple. He was the prophet, priest and king for his people. The development of early Christian communities After the death of Jesus, his followers were lost. Until the Pentecost (Acts 2:1-13) showed them a way forwards and to spread the good news. 4 major stages:The announcement of Jesus’ death and resurrection to the Jews and others at Pentecost (Acts 2-4)The church learning it’s first lesson: the gospel message is not tied to Jerusalem (Acts 6-9)Second valuable lesson: Expansion and disagreement, you need not be a Jew to be a disciple.Church expanding through Paul’s missionary journeys. A sect within the Jewish traditionBelieved they were living the last days before the second coming of Christ (parousia) 1st 40 years: churches were scattered and had no behaviour or practicePeter and PaulPalestinian Jews followed Jesus through Peter and Hellenistic Jews/gentiles followed through Paul Peter moved to Rome and became the first bishop of the churchPaul was first to write teachings, assisted early communities, recognised Jesus’ actions as not only for the Jews, wrote letters helping communities, communicated Jesus’ ideas, set the structure of ChristianityDivisions in the early churchContained Jewish Christians of Palestinian and Hellenistic backgrounds. Gentile christians caused disagreementOriginal Jewish nature was challenged by the conversion of the Gentiles.Debate of the inclusion of the Gentiles formed the Council of Jerusalem (49CE) Decided converted gentiles didn’t have to keep Mosaic law. The Early fathers (up to 325 CE) - when church leaders documented/explained Christian beliefs Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus clarified Jesus’ human/divineness Caused the great schismPersecutionChristians persecuted by Jews (they were a threat to their purity) because of their view of Jesus as God (sounding polytheistic), association with the Gentiles and their refusal to support the Jews when they were trying to overthrow the RomansChristians also persecuted by Romans (2nd and 3rd centuries) Christians worshipped with secret signs (chiro etc) and to meet in private settingsRomans believed they were neglectful citizens as they refused to serve the judiciaryEmperor Nero = the worst Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity (313 AD Edict of Milan) MonasticismMiddle agesFounded by st Francis, st Benedict and st DominicDuring the war for the holy land between Islam called the crusades, women and men fled to the dessert for a life of solitude, chastity and obedience.The RenaissancePopes and bishops built large cathedrals off the christian’s backs (taxes and money) Reformation (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli) questioned church practices such as the granting of indulgences (corruption) Christianity: Anglicanism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Pentecostalism, Protestantism Mainly began due to the great schism in 1054 and was the split between the Eastern (Constantinople) and Western churches (Roman) and the Reformation in Europe and Britain. Established separate Christian churches where each variant adhered to specific beliefs related to Jesus, creation, salvation, the afterlife and the scriptures being the inspired word of God. The council of Trent (1545-1563) was made to call for renewal in the reformation and tried to minimize corrupt practices in the church and made the structural hierarchy. 20th century: the Roman Catholic Church entered renewal with Second Vatican Council to prepare for modern times and address issues in the church. AnglicanismCatholicism OrthodoxPentecostalismProtestantism16th century by (head of the Church of England) King Henry VII Began because of Pope Leo X’s refusal of Henry VII’s wedding. So he made his own religion and Act of supremacy (1534) to be re-married.Anglican theology includes: Authority: biblical and papalJustification: salvation through faith/good worksThe role of Sacraments in salvationPriesthood: how Eucharist is understoodThe power of Christ (Holy Spirit) Low Anglican: stress the Word and preach dimensions rather than rituals. (like Protestantism) High Anglican: Anglo-Catholic stress ritual and sacramental dimension. (similar to Catholics) Priests can be married and women have a role. Catholic meaning universal - worldwide unity Belief and conduct from affirming: ‘one lord, one faith and one baptism’Founded by Jesus Christ and anointed by the Holy spirit during Pentecost Important emphasis on pastoral care, communion (Eucharist), the sacraments and MaryHierarchical, under authority of the Pope in Rome and has a latin tradition See the Eucharist as seeing Jesus in presence and believe faith and good works are necessary for salvation and believe in heaven, purgatory and hell. Strong monasticism in priesthood and convents (priests must be male and unmarried) Very similar to Catholicism and Initially GreekHeart is the divine liturgy (Eucharist) Use images (icons) of Christ, Mary and saintsLiturgical ceremony lasts 2 hours, has lots of incense and is fully sung. Parts of the ceremony are hidden from the view of the crowd and are done in a room to make it mysteriousEmphasise monasticism, did not develop itMale priests only can get married. Very focused on Baptism, the Holy Spirit and Pentecost (hence the name) Began in the 20th century in USA with the Holiness movement (19th century)Baptism in the spirit = when one receives the gift of praying in tongues (glossolalia) Gifts of the Holy Spirit include speaking in tongues, prophecy, healing and ecstaticness. Welcome those who repent and believe Jesus’ forgiveness of them through death/resurrectionDeveloped around the Reformation in 16th CenturyFight over had authority to lead Christianity (Pope, etc) so Martin Luther made his own religion against the Christians, calling out their corruption. Only have two main sacraments (baptism and holy communion) as they focus on preaching the word of Jesus. Three Main branches:Lutheranism (Martin Luther)Calvinism (John Calvin) Zwinglianism (Ulrich Zwingli) Chief Features: Acceptance of the bible as the sole source of revealed truthDoctrine of justification by faith onlyUniversal priesthood of all believers Principal Beliefs The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ The Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries were debates regarding the nature of Christ, in particular, the issue of his humanity vs. his divinity.Docetism - position which undermines the integrity of the humanity of Jesus because it claims that Jesus is fully divine but not truly human, because he is God merely adopting the appearance of being human.Arianism is the belief that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but not equal to God. Jesus was created by God but not eternal like God.Council of Nicaea in 325 was called to fight against Arianism. The Council developed the Nicene creed which state that the Father and Son are of 1 essence and hence Jesus is divine. Council of Constantinople reaffirmed this decision. Doctrine of the Holy Trinity was formulated. God is understood as one God, yet within the Godhead there are 3 distinct persons - God the Father/Creator, God the Son/Jesus Christ and God the Holy Spirit. Nestorious (Archbishop of Constantinople) undermined the unity of Jesus claiming that Mary is the mother of Jesus but not the divine Jesus suggesting there are 2 persons in Jesus.Council of Ephesus in 431 CE rejected this view and confirmed that there was only 1 person in Jesus and Mary rightfully being called the Mother of God (theokotos)The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ The belief of Christians is that Jesus’ death was important to destroy sin and give humanity the opportunity for eternal life (Romans 8:3-4). Christians have traditionally believed that Jesus died for our sins. Jesus’ death was then followed by his resurrection and ascension into heaven.More adequate reflections on the death of Jesus highlight the notion that death is an integral part of the human condition and one that is shared by Jesus.The fundamental Christian belief in the resurrection of the body, as evident in the Nicene creed based on the resurrection of Jesus Christ.Whilst Jesus' resurrection and ascension are depicted slightly differently in the Gospels of John and Luke, both stress the importance of the resurrection as carrying the meaning of eternal life that overcomes the limitations of human mortalityTheologians have long debated the nature of the risen Jesus. The difficulty is reconciling the physical resurrection with the spiritual resurrection.John 11:25 tells Christians that Jesus said ‘I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die, will live’. Christians believe that the resurrection of the body will occur for all at the Final Judgement. Jesus’ ascension into heaven (recorded in the Gospels of Mark and Luke) marks Jesus’ transformation to sit at the right hand of God the Father. The nature of God and the Trinity The doctrine of the Trinity: God is One existing as 3 persons - God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit as sanctifier.The Trinitarian doctrine - 3 co-eternal, equal persons in God, which is the notion of unity within community. The Trinitarian doctrine was further developed and defined at the council of Nicaea in 325 CE and Constantinople in 381 CE.God’s promise of salvation has been fulfilled through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, thus God is revealed as Trinity. The role of creator (God the Father) is recognised mainly in the Old Testament (Hebrew Scriptures), in God’s interaction with his chosen people. In the other books of the New Testament and today, the Holy Spirit is the principal means by which God interacts with the world. God the Spirit, revealed in the ChurchIn the Gospels, it is God the Son, Jesus Christ who is the central figure revealed in the Christian Scriptures. The difficulty is reconciling the concept of monotheism with the notion of God existing as 3 persons.The divine essence is common to all 3 but the 3 persons have attribute/properties which distinguished them e.g. Fatherhood, sonship and sanctifying power. Once essence means that the actions (creation, redemption, sanctification) are attributable for all. Mutual relations is the concept that the terms Father and Son are not titles but expressions of a relationship and thus all 3 persons are co-equalRevelation The revelation or message of God has occurred throughout history. For Christians, it was most fully given through the person of Jesus Christ. But God’s revelation is also evident in creation and through the person of the Holy Spirit, interacting with the world,God is intimately involved in all aspects of human life and thus God is revealed to humankind in and through the experiences of human history.The revelation is understood to be an ongoing process. Christians know that revelation involves God communicating with the world, but revelation also relies on us to respond to it with a commitment to relationship with God. Revelation is not complete without acknowledgement of God. Even though all Christian groups believe that the Bible is the normative text, they understand this inspiration in different ways. In comparison with Protestant denominations, Orthodox and Catholic denominations place a greater emphasis on the teaching authority of the Church, seen to be adjunct with the sacred scripture in communicating the revelation. Salvation Salvation (from the Latin salus, meaning ‘health’) means the deliverance from sin that we can only attain through our relationship with God. For Christians, salvation will only come to fruition in the final days of the world when they are reunited with God and is only attainable through the grace of God.Essentially, Christians believe that salvation is a gift from God, that is offered through the death and resurrection of Jesus. This gift only being accessed through faith in Jesus.God is the one who saves, God’s saving action (Moses and the Exodus) is liberating and has a particular concern for those who are the most vulnerable in society. Jesus in his life and ministry embodies the saving action of God. Christians are called to accept the gift of God’s saving action through their faith in Jesus and their own actions on behalf of those in need.Salvation in Christianity can mean 3 things: deliverance from sin, being resurrected to an afterlife and being healed through the power of the divine and united with God. Salvation is as much a present reality as a future deliverance.Sacred Texts and Writings Bible Is a collection of books and is referred to as the Sacred Scriptures. The Bible is considered to be the word of God as it is inspired by God and a recorded of the key events in the story of humanity’s interaction with God. The Bible is made up of: The Hebrew Scripture:Also known as the Old TestamentRecognises the Jewish heritage of Christianity with stories of creation, the Hebrew people and the covenant people between God and his peopleThe Christian ScriptureAlso known as the New Testament Acknowledges and recounts the life and times of JesusThe Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical Are additional material contained in the Old Testament Are Accepted by Catholic and Orthodox traditions as part of Church Canon Contents of the Bible Old Testament New Testament Contains 46 books, under the following groups:The Torah (Pentateuch): refers to the books of law. These books include the instruction or guide for living that God passed onto his people The Historical Books: records the history of the nation of Israel from the time they reached the Promised Land until they returned from their exile in Babylon.The Wisdom Books: the books of poetry and wisdom The Prophetic Books: contains stories about special people who were inspired by God to speak out and deliver a special message to the people Contains 27 books, under the following groups:The Gospels: tells the story of the life, teachings, deeds, death and resurrection of JesusThe Acts of the Apostles: traces the spread of the Gospel and growth of the Church for 30 years The Pauline Letters and Letter: were the letters written to meet the specific needs of the early Christian communities and to spread the good news. Revelations: is the last book and if different from all the others. Vision, images and symbols are used to convey the Lordship of Christ and the victory of Christ establishing the Kingdom of God Importance of the Bible:The importance and influence of the Bible can be explained in both external and internal forms:External InternalReligious groups confess that they are guided by the Bible. The religious community in the author of Scripture; having developed it, cherished it, used it, and eventually canonised it. Many Christians continue to experience the power of the contents of the Biblical books themselves. The biblical books are cherished and used because of what they say and how they say it. The Bible is the most widely distributed books in human history It has been enormously influential - and not only among the religious communities that hold it sacred. Contains salvation history, the account of the history of creation that shows the actions of God in human history culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus. The Bible - normative for Christians, highlights key beliefs and determines principal applications of legal, ethical and ritual dimensions. Provides guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship and provides a model for life actionThe application or the Bible differs across the spectrum of Christian denominations:Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture Protestant denominations follow the teachings of Luther who taught that the only source Christians should turn to for inspiration is the Bible Evangelical Protestants also believe in the ‘bible alone’Core Ethical Teachings Christian ethics are based on Gospel teachings but focus on two key relationships:Right relationship with God Right relationship with humanityThese two key relationships are guided by appropriate actions to maintain and support positive and healthy interactionThe Ten Commandments New Testament Ethics (The Beatitudes & Jesus’ Commandment of Love)The Decalogue was a covenant between God and his people. Given to Moses and the Israelites when they were in the desert searching for the Promised Land (Exodus 20:2-14). The first 4 commandments describe one’s relationship with God and the other 6 are about maintaining good relationships with one’s neighbours. Christians recognise the Ten Commandments as] a set of principles for ethical behaviour. They outline the behaviours that are not allowed personally or not to be tolerated in others. The Old Testament had many other rules about right living for the people of Israel. Some of these additional laws are outlined in the Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. New testament ethical teachings are expressed differently from those of the Old testament. The language speaks of what is valued or blessed in our interaction with others. New testament ethical teachings are those outlined by Jesus in his ministry to the people who heard him preach and believed in him. The Beatitudes:Were a revolutionary mind map for Jesus’ followers detailing how to live a good life. Remain guidelines for today’s Christians as to how they should relate to others. They teach that we all have responsibility to care for others in society. Much of the social justice agenda of Christian groups such as Anglicare and the Edmund Rice Centre emerges from the challenge of this text. The Beatitudes are the eight declarations of blessedness spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:3-12), each beginning with "Blessed are..." Describe the ideal disciple and his rewards, both present and future.Jesus’ Commandment of Love Is a summative statement that draws together all the ethical teaching that went before. jesus ‘ teaching is about God’s love for human beings and their opportunity for salvation through love of God and neighbour.These three central scripture passages underpin our relationships with God and with each other. A central action that Christians have to channel their love of neighbour is through social justice activities. [Jesus] said to him, ‘ “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.” This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: “You shall love your neighbour as yourself.” On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.’(Matthew 22:37–40)Personal Devotion PrayerChristians are called to be people of prayer following the examples of Jesus as prayer was at the heart of his ministry. Prayer is an awareness of God and a response to the presence of the sacred in our life. It involves listening, responding, encountering and developing a relationship with God, which brings meaning to adherents’ lives. All Christians denominations have communal prayer rituals which play a significant role in their traditions. The most important of these is the Sabbath or SUnday service which is the focal points of the life of the community. Personal prayer refers to a religious practice that occurs privately and is, by definition, non-liturgical - but private prayer may also occur during public worship services. It can also involve regular activities such as attendance at church services, or it can reflect the prayer that is conducted at home, alone. Forms of prayer: Prayer of Intercession & Petition Biblical tradition of Jesus teaching about prayer includes a strong encouragement for Christians to ask in prayer for their needs and the needs of other (Luke 11:10 - 13) Some branches of Christianity (e.g. orthodox and catholic), there has been a strong belief in the communion of saints which includes aspects where those who have passed are able to intercede through Jesus to God on behalf of the people on earth.The way in which God responds to prayers of petition is at the heart of the mystery of God’s involvement in human history, some Christians believe that the degree or quality of a person’s faith has bearing on God’s response. Prayers of Reflection & Meditation Involves finding a time and place free from distraction and centring one’s thoughts on God. The main purpose of this form is to create an inner stillness which allows people to deeply contemplate the nature of God which may involve the use of a biblical image, an aspect of creation, etc. Another purpose is to contemplate the meaning of events and circumstances of life. The person is able to meditate on certain aspects of life in order to understand their meaning in the light of God’s love. Bible Reading and Reflection The strongest traditions of bible reading are found among the Protestant churches, drawing on Martin Luther’s doctrine of ‘’sola scriptura’ meaning scripture alone. In more recent times, this tradition has influenced other Christian denominations so that bible reading and reflection is now a widely used element of prayer When using the bible, Christians seek to find inspiration and guidance through the words of scripture. Prayers of Praise & Thanksgiving Is one of the most widely practices and traditional forms of praise. In recent times, the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer.The purpose of praise is to allow the person the opportunity to acknowledge the greatness of GodTypes of prayer:Traditional & Formal PrayerVarious people have composed prayers which have become widely used. Many of these prayers recite or adapt biblical texts - such prayers cover a wide range of occasions and needs. These include: the Lord’s Prayer: Known as the Our Father. Is taken from the occasion in the gospel where disciples ask Jesus to teach them a prayer (Luke 11:1). Is commonly concluded in liturgy as well as personal prayerThe Rosary: Draws heavily on biblical texts with the Catholic community. Is organised into 5 decades each containing 10 recitations of the Hail Mary. In the course of each decade, the person is encouraged to meditate on one of the mysteries which are based on the events in the life of Jesus from the perspective of Mary. The Divine Office: developed in conjunction with the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia. Is also widely used as a personal prayer and is entirely based on scriptural texts, specifically the Psalms. Informal and Spontaneous Prayer Christians across a range of denomination use a variety of informal and spontaneous forms of prayer for different occasions and times. These include:Morning & Evening Prayer: Christians have been traditionally taught to begin and end each day with prayer. Typically a morning prayer is one of dedication to God and often includes petitions relating to events in the coming day. Evening prayer is typically a prayer of thanksgiving for God’s providence during the day. Grace at meals: this prayer at meal times is known as grace and it usually takes the form of expressing gratitude to God for the provisions of the necessities of life. It provides an opportunity to pray for a blessing on those who have provided and prepared the food. Quiet times: Denominations urge their members to find time during the pressured of normal daily routines to spend a period of time in prayer. Approaches to prayerThroughout Christian history, various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer, which have been adopted by others. Such approaches to prayer are referred to as schools of prayer because they represent an approach adopted by significant members of Christian. They usually provide a more substantial approach than a simple style. One form of approach is the taize prayer: From the taize community in France a simple, meditative prayer from has emerged which is now known as Taize prayer It involves a process of contemplation based on the chanting recitation of simple mantras. Taize prayers also include a strong focus on justice, peace and ecology.IslamOrigins Pre-Islamic Arabia as the cultural and historical context for the development of IslamCultural context Historical contextIslamic communities (umma) developed around the 7th century, triggered by the life of MuhammadIslam dates back to the creation of their first Islamic community (umma) Developed on the Arabian Peninsular (now known as Saudi Arabia) Most significant Islamic cities are Mecca (Makkah) and Medina Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Israel, Palestine and Saudi Arabia did not exist as political entities during the time of Muhammad. Language: Hebrew and ArabicIslamic land is an extension of the lands mentioned in the bible. Medina was an agricultural settlementMecca was the centre of trade and commerceConsisted of tribes, some of which were nomadic and travelled to find areas of vegetation and water for their cattle (Bedouins) Tribes followed a route to follow trade. This helped spread religious beliefs and had spread Christianity (Orthodox, Nestorian, Monophysite) and Judaism Jinn was the name given to the tribal spirituality as each tribe had a belief system (animistic beliefs) and worshipped deities and symbolsReligious practises such as pilgrimages and circumambulation were adopted by Islam Christian and Jewish ethics had no impact on these tribes (the tribes were unethical) Muhammad’s society was known as transitional society due to the sudden changes Due to tension tribes began becoming restless with their spirituality Tension as they were not sent a prophet like their God (Christian God) had sent prophets and scriptures to other religions Tribes held different areasThe lands had a long history of warfare between Jordan, Syria, Israel and Palestine and the Persian empire (Iran) and Byzantine Empire (Turkey) Medina and Mecca became more attractive for nomadic tribes to settle, and other tribes who had already settled didn’t like this. New wealth and commercialism resulted in increased status’ and classes Tribes stressed at their way of life and valuesKa’ba (cube) is Mecca’s most religious site and was built by Abraham and his son First dedicated to the one God but was taken over by polytheists (Allah was worshipped as the supreme god among other gods. The Prophet Muhammad Muhammad is not the founder of Islam and is only human, he had a concern for justice at a young age.He was delivered the final message from Allah (he is the last prophet) to humankind by the angel Gabriel in a cave. ‘Islam’ means surrender All muslims want to surrender to the will of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad is this example and is a model for life for all muslimsIslam ensures that Muhammad is not worshipped as they believe worship is for Allah only. There is evidence that he was a wise and capable leader in businessReceived a revelation from the angel Jibril (Gabriel) when he was living in solitude and reflectionHe displayed faith, willingness and trust to AllahHe became the leader of Medina due to his forgiveness and wisdom in overcoming anger. Ensured the practise of almsgiving to the poor was performed by everyone. (It was like a tax) Muhammad’s actions became a guiding source of Islamic law (sunna) Sunna covers traditions (hadiths) and practices of Muhammad. Hadiths are traditions that provide guidance on everyday actions in oral and written form. Examples of Hadiths include:> Marriage‘When a man marries, he has fulfilled half of the religion, so let him fear go regarding the remaining half.’ (Sayings of Muhammad. By Prof. Ghazi Ahmad) > Right of Wives‘When a woman observes the five time of prayers, fasts during Ramadan, preserves her chastity and obeys her husband, she may enter by any of the gates of paradise she wishes.’ (Sayings of Muhammad) > Divorce‘The lawful thing God hates most is divorce.’ (Sayings of Muhammad) > Clothing and Adornment‘Cleanse yourself, for Islam is cleanliness.’ (The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam) The development of Islam under the leadership of the Four Rightly Guided CaliphsCaliph comes from the word Khalifa meaning ‘successor’ and was assumed from the successors of Muhammad as the political and spiritual leaders of the Muslim Empire. Islamic armies were successful in overtaking neighboring cities under these Caliph’s which expanded the Muslim empireAll these Caliph’s were close to Muhammad and maintained Muslim orthodoxy after Muhammad’s deathThey are known as ‘Rashidun’ which means ‘rightly guided’ and are: Abu Bakr‘Umar ibn al-Khattab‘Uthman ibn AffanAli ibn Abi Talib - 632-634 CE- Father of Muhammad’s youngest wife - Entrusted by Muhammad to carry out important tasks- As a wealthy man he put personal fortune into the service of the umma.- Had to restore stability to the region after the death of Muhammad - Began a process of writing the first written version of the Qur’an - 634-644 CE - Father in-law to Muhammad and a close friend- Highly effective military leader and political administrator who grew an empire- Extended the empire through Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Persia to Armenia- Established a council to choose the next Caliph- 644-656 CE - Son-in-law to Muhammad- Collected material to produce the definitive text in the dialect of Arabic (was finalised in 650 CE) - Favoured his tribe which resulted in tension because of his distribution of wealth to them, rather than everyone. - 656-661 CE- Cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad- Tensions resulted in a civil war and political upheaval - Hu’awiya accused Ali of murdering ‘Uthman- Split between Sunni and Shi’a began The Sunni and Shi’aSunniShi’ia- From sunnat al Nabi meaning ‘traditionalist’ - Accept the authority of the caliphs - 85% of Muslims and is the normal pattern of Islamic belief- Believe Muhammad was the last prophet and the Qur’an was the final revelation of Allah. - ‘Partisians of Ali’ - Seceded from the main body of Islam- Reject the authority of the first three Caliphs’- 15% of umma- Are controversial Principal BeliefsThe articles of faith explained in the Aqida (creed) as:Tawhid - Existence and unity of Allah (God)‘Belief in Allah’ means a declaration and commitment to the belief that he is One.The word Allah has no plural or feminine form, so many Muslims prefer to use this name in English since the word ‘God’ can be used in multiple senses. Muslims Tawhid excludes the concept of the Trinity or triune God. Allah is transcendent, beholden to none and in need of no partner or associate. There are 99 names attributed to him in the Qur’an: they point to an indescribable divine being. It’s forbidden to represent Allah in a visual or symbolic form. If there is only one God, then he alone is the creator of all that exists, but was not himself created; he is ‘The Eternal’.Muslims should worship Allah alone; no-one else is worthy of worship, no other being should be associated with Allah. The shahada or basic Islamic confession of faith states, ‘There is no deity but God and Muhammad is his prophet’.Angels and Jinn (evil)In Islamic thought, angels are spiritual beings, created from light, sinless, have no gender and don’t eat or drink. Angels are the purest beings created by Allah and submit to his will in everything.Angels are referenced in Hebrew Scripture as messengers between humans and God. Jinn are spirits and forces that can be In their myriad ranks they constantly praise and celebrate God and bear his throne. Although invisible to human eyes, they may take on human form having diverse tasks. Angels accompany human beings in their lives, guarding them, helping them in their difficulties, protecting them against the wiles of Satan, and recording their good and evil deeds - these angels are acknowledged during daily salat.Books of Allah The books of God are the revelations that God made to his messengers, who came with his authority to preach his single unchanging message: that he is One, and that he sends messengers, each with a book presenting knowledge of himself and the law that he wishes individuals to live by.The Qur’an mentions 3 revealed books by name: the Tawrah (Torah) given to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) given to David and the Injil (Gospel) given to Jesus, son of Mary.The only one of these books that existed in the form in which it was revealed and claims universal authority is the Qur’an, the book given to the last of the prophets and the seal of prophecy, Muhammad.The Qur’an is now the most reliable book of Allah.Rusul (messengers) or prophetsRusul are men chosen by God to take his revelation to different peoples. There are 25 named prophets in the Qur’an many known in the Tanakh celebrated as figures in history.Allah has sent prophets to different societies at different times. Thousands of prophets have been sent to deliver religious messages to humanity. Prophets such as Jesus or Moses are relevant to Muslim life, as long as it is recognised that of all of the prophets, Muhammad holds the distinct place of being the last, and of completing the messages sent by God. The Qur’an names 25 prophets. The rusal are prophets who have delivered holy books. Belief in prophethood is closely linked with belief in holy books - kutubu’llahThe 6 most important prophets are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad. Akhira - afterlifeEvery human who has ever lived is brought to judgement before Allah, and punished for their sins or be rewarded for their goodness. In this way, life is a test (Sura 67:2)The world exists in 3 layers:Heaven/Jannah - paradise where good people will be rewarded foreverEarthJahannam - Hell or hell-fire ruled over by Iblis (Satan)Fate/predestination - the decree (qadar)On judgement day, everything is as God foresaw and decreed it would be. For others, it is whatever God decrees on that Day.Everything that happens on earth is believed to be preordained by Allah’s will.In sha-’Allah (If God is willing) shows the recognition of his power and acceptance of his will for them - people cannot do anything unless approved by God; however, they still have a free will to choose. Allah knows the past and future actions of every person, individuals have the free will to act for good or for evil; he doesn’t force them to do anything - they do have control over their fate. Sacred Texts and Writings The Qur’an The Hadith The name Qur’an means ‘the recitation’ and it is the holy book of Islam and is believed to be the literal word of Allah. Muslims believe the Qur’an to be sum of divine revelations received by Muhammad. These revelations spanned over a 23 year period, from the time of Muhammad’s first encounter with the angel, Jibril (Gabriel) outside Mecca in 610 CE until his death in Medina in 632 CEThe Qur’an consists of 114 suras (chapters), each one divided into verses. They range in length, date of composition and underlying messages. (not written in chronological order)Suras are sequenced from longest to shortest and this order is believed to be divinely inspired. The Qur’an has a unique status in Islamic tradition for no other revealed group which has been preserved in such an authentic form. Being the words of God, it must be handled with reverence and always kept in a place of honour. Muslims see the Qur’an as a miracle and the proof that Muhammad was a prophet and should be the first and last words a Muslim believer hears. As Muslims recite out loud the Qur’an they are to put their whole heart and feeling into it. To hear and speak the Qur’an is to hear and speak to Allah. The Qur’an was one of the first books written in the classical form of Arabic and the actual recitation is important and a holy experience. Any of translation of the Qur’an is merely a interpretation and not the literal word of God. A hadith is a narration on the life of the Prophet, Muhammad. This is distinguished from the sunna, which is the details of the actual life of Muhammad. The Hadith is the second foundation text of Islam. Along with the Qur’an, they are the basis of islamic jurisprudence and show the life of the Prophet as one worthy of being taken as a role model. They are source for prayers, meditation and spiritual insight, as well as an elaboration of the ethical values taught by the Qur’an. It is believed that the hadith was compiled by devoted individuals who put the words and actions of Muhammad into writing around the early 700s instead of allowing them to continue circulating through oral tradition. There are 2 kinds of hadith: Sacred hadith - words of Allah that are not part of the Qur’an Noble hadith - details of the actions and words of the Prophet Core Ethical Teachings Islamic jurisprudence The ethical teachings of Islam reflect the beliefs and teachings of Islam. Islam ethics stem from one key principle: “To live wholly and fully in submission to God’s will”A Muslim must ‘try one’s hardest” (Jihad) to establish good. Islamic ethics emphasise on right action between believer and Allah = vertical dimension and between believers = horizontal dimension. The worst a Muslim can do are the following: Kufr: disbelief in Allah Shirk: associating anything else with Allah such as an image Tugyan: not being able to trust Allah and acting in a contrary way to nature Jurisprudence: the science of the law or the science of interpretation of the law Sharia’a: is the code of law for the Muslim way of life that has developed form jurisprudence Shari’a regulates all aspects of life Muslims therefore do not see a distinction between the sacred and secular life Fiqh: legal decisions based on the process of jurisprudence Developed out of the need to make jurisprudential judgements in the face of rapidly developing situations which went beyond what was explicitly provided in the Qur’an and tradition. The Sources of ethics for Muslims in order of importance are: The Qur’an: the revealed word of Allah as given to the prophet Muhammad The Sunna and Hadith - actions and words of approval of the Prophet. ijma’ – consensus view among religious leaders and Muslim scholarsqiyas – comparison with teachings of the Qur’an or Hadith - analogies drawn from the Qur’anThe interpretation of Shar’a is not uniform among Muslims:Sunni Muslims generally accept all 4 sources and consider the rulings of Ijma and Qiyas binding Shi’a Muslims have traditionally opposed Ijma and would abide by decisions of Ayatollahs who are moved by divine wisdom to make strict rulings based on the Qur’an. Core features of Islamic Ethics: Arkan al-Islam: The Five Pillars of Islam Moral codes are embedded in the Five Pillars which are at the core of Muslim faith and practice:Recitation of the creed of Islam Prayer - requirement to pray 5 times a day Fasting - obligatory during Ramadan Charity - voluntary and obligatory Pilgrimage Fitra: the natural inclination inherent in every human beingThis is a person’s basic nature Ut us the basic nature to be good One’s heart seeks constantly to direct a person to seek the higher power outside oneself Expression of Faith The Five Pillars as the expression of the faith of Islam ShahadaSalah (Prayer)Zakah (Almsgiving)Sawm (Fasting)Hajj (pilgrimage) What is it? An Islamic creed declaring belief in the oneness of God and the acceptance of Muhammad as God’s prophet. States that ‘There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah’ Practices and Meaning:Recitation of this is the sole requirement for Muslims wanting to join the Islamic community Recited during a Muslim’s call to prayerSaid when waking up in the morning and when going to bedRecited moments before a Muslim's death A declaration of their most important beliefCelebrated in the Qu’ran and Hadith as one of the most wonderful expressionsIt is a ritual prayer that is said everydayFirst words whispered to a newborn and the last words heard by the dying. Expression of faith What is it?The name for the obligatory prayers that are performed 5 times a day (dawn, midday, late afternoon, sunset and nightfall) Direct link between believers and AllahContain verses of the Qur’an and are said in Arabic. Practices and Meaning: ‘God is great. I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God. I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God. Come to prayer! Come to success!’ - call to prayer (Adan) There are positions used for praying on a mat and are done in cohesion. What is it?Means purification and growthMinimum is annual payment of 2.5% of personal wealth for the poor, introduced by Muhammad. Made as charity, more given during Ramadan. Compassion for less fortunate people and in turn develops a sense of conscience.Bridge between rich and poor. Practices and Meaning:‘And (especially) those who establish regular prayer (salat) and practise regular charity (zakat)’ - Qur’an 4:162Established by Muhammad in the Hadith and SunnaWhat is it?Done during the month of Ramadan (ninth month of Islamic calendar) Fast from food, drink and sexual relations from dawn until sundownShows obedience to Allah, spiritual discipline and self-control Practices and Meaning:‘Fasting is prescribed for you as it was prescribed for those before you’ - Qur’an 2:183Purification of mind of bodily desires, strengthening one’s will, caring and sharing, forgiveness and goodwill. Walk 7 times around the Ka’ba and retrace steps of Muhammad. 7 times between the hills of Safa and MarwaStand together on the plains of ‘Arafat and prayer for God’s forgiveness (preview of Judgement day) Appreciates the TawhidWhat is it?Done to Mecca and the Ka’ba because they are holyBegins on the twelfth month of the Islamic year (lunar) Practices and Meaning: New beginning: Shave their heads and wear simple clothes to symbolise putting away riches and to acknowledge the quality of humanity in the sight of Allah. Stoning of the Devil: Perform Ramy by throwing 7 pebbles at the 3 columns in Mina Tawaf: Walk around the Ka’aba 7 times in a counterclockwise direction Sa’i: Walk 7 times between Safa and Marwa Religions of Ancient Origin (SHINTO) Origins of the universe Shinto is a religion with Ancient beginnings. This animistic belief system was already present in Japan by 500BCE.Shinto creation stories tell of the history and lives of the “Kami” (deities)The story is told that the heaven and earth were made up of In and Yo, who formed an egg-shaped mass without clear limitations. Heaven was formed by drawing out the cleaner, more pure part that rose to the top, while the rest settled down to be the earth. The earth required more work because of its impurities and so took longer to develop than heaven. Following this, 8 deities formed. A reed that sprouted from the earth became the god Kuni-toko-tachi no Mikoto. Next, 7 more generations of male and female kami were born. First Kuni no sa-tsuchi no Mikoto and Toyo-kumi-nu no Mikoto, both pure males, were born. Then came:Uhiji-ni no Mikoto, Suhiji-ni no Mikoto, Oho-to nochi no Mikoto, Oho-to mahe no Mikoto, Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto.When a divine couple, Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto descended from heaven, their union produced the islands of Japan becoming the parents of the kami. Their children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. One of their daughters, Amaterasu Omikami (the sun goddess), became the dominant deity where it is said that she gave birth to the first emperor and is therefore the ancestress of the imperial family of Japan. Her descendents unified the country. Her shrine is called Jingu and is at Ise.Her brother Susano came down from heaven and roamed throughout the earth. He is famous for killing a great evil serpent. Principal beliefs Kami - “god” or “gods”, deities or spirits. The Kami are the Shinto deities. Kami must be understood through actual experience - not captured through words. Believers revere “musuhi”, the Kamis’ creative and harmonising powers. They aspire to have “makoto”, sincerity or true heart. This is regarded as the way or will of Kami.The priests preside over rituals and ceremonies after first purifying themselves by bathing, abstinence from sex and certain foods. All life comes from the kami and humans are children of the kami. Nature spirits - animism and polytheism like indigenous people. Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law and only a very loosely-organised priesthood. By presiding over rituals, the priests meditate with the kami to bring harmony between people and nature. Shinto doesn’t have a fully developed theology nor a moral codes. Shintoists generally follow the law of Confucianism.Their ancestors are deeply revered and worshipped. There are “Four Affirmations” in Shinto:Tradition and family Love of naturePhysical cleanlinessFestival and ceremoniesThey must be honoured. They are the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. The main celebrations relate to birth and marriage. Kami reside in nature. Most shrines are built in special places e.g. the groves of trees, beside a waterfall or at the edge of a village. Nature is sacred, to be in contact with nature is to be close to the Gods. Natural objects are worshipped as sacred spirits. Ablutions must be carried out before prayers or when approaching a shrine. Purity is at the heart of the understanding of good and evil. “Matsuri”. The joyful occasions with lots of colour and activity. Worship and honour given to the Kami and ancestral spirits. It brings the community together in a happy and joyful manner. Shinto displays a positive attitude towards life and the nation. Pollution including decay, bodily waste that must be cleansed and split blood is a defilement. Through time, this concept of purity developed into the modern attitude of the need for each person to keep his/her heart pure. For purification to be effective, ritual words must be recited by a qualified practitioner. The desire for peace which was suppressed during WWII, has been restored. Supernatural powers and deities The Kami are spirits associated with particular places, families and communities. In Shinto there is no sense of the supernatural or of one supreme transcendent god; instead there are the kami. These spirits are not regard as gods, neither are they regarded as all-powerful, each having its limitations. The kami are seen as protectors of the different aspects of nature, of families and of land. The kami are associated with particular locations such as a distinctive rock by the seashore, a grove of trees or a waterfall. The kami may be the spirits of deceased ancestors, emperors or prominent military figures, or the spirits of important animals such as tigers. Generally the kami are benevolent but when angered they can become vengeful and must be placated.Shinto deities Amaterasu: Is the sun goddessThe most important deity of the Shinto religion and ruler of Takama no Hara (the high celestial plain) The domain of the Kami or SpiritsFujin Was the god of wind He is said to have been present in the initial creation of the world Hachiman One of the most popular deitiesThe patron deity of the Minamoto clan and of warriors The God of WarRituals Traditional Shinto practice include pilgrimages to sacred shrines and celebrations of population festivals. The Shinto attitude underlies many of the basic structures of family and culture and is most readily apparent in the social life and personal motivations of the Japanese people. Shinto is maintained as a religion primarily by the institution’s of the family and the state not as a separately organised independent church. In keeping with values, rituals should be carried out in a spirit of sincerity, cheerfulness and purity. It is intended to satisfy the senses as well as the minds of those taking part. Sacred spaces: Prayers were offered and rites were performed at natural shrines, such as the sacred sakaki tree; even now every Shinto shrine still has a specimen of tree. Each family or clan had its own kami and all the members of the community were united in a spiritual relationship as being “children of the kami”. Shrines don’t need to be buildings - rocks, trees and mountains can all act as shrines, if they are special to kami. Most shrines face towards the south or the east. The north and west are considered to be unlucky regions. In special places of pilgrimages and worship kami can be found. The Japanese see shrines as both restful places filled with a sense of the sacred and as the source of their spiritual vitality. They regard them as their spiritual home and often attend the same shrine regularly throughout their lives. Japanese people don’t visit shrines on a particular day each week- they go at festival times and want the local kami to do them a favour such as a good outcome to a surgical operation. Kami dana: Devout Shintoists will perform morning and evening rituals before the small wooden kami dana or ‘god shelf’ in their home. The kami dana functions as an alter on which the devotee keeps various religious artefacts and figurine of some prominent deity, ancestor or emperor. Purification Rites Shinto rituals and personal practice that cleanse both body and mind. Water and salt are commonly used as purifying agents. These rituals are always performed at the start of Shinto religious ceremonies and before entering a shrine. The concept of purification originates in the legend of the god Izanagi who washed himself free of pollution after visiting his wife in the Land of the Dead. The Oharae is the ceremony of ‘great purification’ - it is a special purification ritual that is used to remove sin and pollution form a large group. The ritual is performed at the end of June and December in the Imperial Household and at other shrines in order to purify the whole population. Shubatsu is a purification ritual in which salt is sprinkled on priests or worshippers, or on the ground to purify it. One notable use of salt in purification is found in Sumo wrestling when the fighters sprinkle salt around the ring to purify it. First Shrine Visit:Hatsumiyamairi is when a newborn baby is taken to shrine to be placed under the protection of the kami. Traditionally the baby was taken to the shrine by its grandmother because the mother was thought to be impure form childbirth but nowadays the child is often taken by the mother. Shinto Weddings: A shinto wedding is a small-scale affair involving the couple, their family and their close friends. The bride normally wears a white kimono with a white scarf symbolising purity. The ceremony begins with ritual purification, next prayers are offered for the couple to have good luck, happiness and the protection of the kami, then the couple drinks sake - taking three sips each form three cups poured by the miko and the groom reads words of commitment. The ceremony ends with an offering of Tamagushi and a ritual sharing of sake by everyone present. Shinto funerals: Death is seen as impure and conflicting with the essential purity of Shinto shrines. For the same reason, cemeteries are not built near Shinto shrines. The result of this is that most Japanese have Buddhist or secular funerals and cremation is common. Shinto funerals, when they occur are called Sosai and are largely developed from Buddhist funeral rites. The funerals are usually conducted by lay people not priests (because the contact with death would be too polluting for priests) and do not take place in shrines. Shinto festivals: The word matsuri can refer to any occasion for offering thanks and praise to a deity at a shrine.Festivals centre on particular kami, who are treated as the guests of honour at the event, hence the meaning to ‘entertain’ or to ‘serve’ The processions often feature a mikoshi, a ‘divine palanquin’, used to carry a kami. This is a yearly festival called Rei-sai. The mikoshi is often described as a portable altar or portable shrine. The procession of the mikoshi is effectively a visit by the kami to the local community that is devoted to them and is thought to confer a blessing on that community. Significance: Importance of the ritual is simply the ritual itself.Taking part in a series of actions or behaviours is a religious act that ‘does’ religion, provides a holistic religious experience and strengthens the participants’ relationship with the kami and with other members of the communityTaking part in certain ceremonies teaches the participants ethics or taking part in a ceremony which asks the kami for a favour or thanksTeaches the participants that they can have a relationship with the spiritual elements of the world. Influence in the society Influence on JapanIn the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuriesWas the established state religion of JapanBelieved the emperors of Japan were the descendants of the first Emperor (Amaterasu’s grandson) and the native Japanese people were descendants of the Kami Brought forth worshipping of all creation It was a polytheistic religion/societyFormed through reading, storytelling and myths Was a holistic religion (engaging with all the senses) which united everyone due to similaritiesIndependent religion for people to find their inner spirituality and share a worldview. Believe Kami spirits were in the surroundings, therefore formed a uniting appreciation of all nature and care for the environment. Encourages optimism and provides peace within their own soul as well as bringing the community together at ritual shrines to practice these together. Shinto was also reason for spiritual festivals such NationalChallenge the beliefs of other religious cultures They are a very accepting religion, therefore accept the beliefs of other religions allows them to fit together understandingly and without conflicts. TaboosTaboo is a social or religious custom prohibiting/restricting a particular practice or forbidding association with a particular person, place, or thing. This includes impurity or spiritual pollution which repulse the kami Blood, sickness and death are regarded to be pollution (therefore they got the buddhists to do their dirty work) Ritual purification (harai) such as fasting, recitation of scriptures, walking on hot coals or simply washing can get rid of spiritual pollution. SeppukuHaving profound social disgrace is a motive for seppuku (harakiri), which is the practice of ritual suicide. Performed by those who think they’ve failed to maintain standards and by doing Seppuku they hope to demonstrate loyalty, sincerity, to redeem their honour and achieve perpetual (never ending) lifeKamikaze were a group of Japanese soldiers who purposely crashed their planes into allied naval vessel. Due to their sacrificial death they hoped to earn eternal life in the kami world as heroes. The role of womenWomen ruled tribes as shaman’s who united religious functions and worked as administrators. Successors of female shamans are found in miko or female shrine attendants. Cultural AuthorityShrine ShintoismSect Shintoism- The majority of shinto. - They would practice devotion at public shrines and were keen on the safety and happiness of people by the blessings by the kami when human politics coincided.- The minority.- They are a charismatic group who arise in social crisis and recognise apocalyptic signs. - One of the largest Sects is the Tenrikyo Sect. Human search for meaning Not a way of explaining the world as it has no god, no founder and no sense of exclusivity (being hard to access) The purpose of shinto is to accept the validity of other religionsThey are based on acceptance and see everyone as good. Though they have no text of proper morals, they believe that in order to please the kami they must do no harm and their actions must only benefit others. Emphasis is placed on right practice, sensibility and attitude. They have a series of beliefs and practices associated with their shrines in order to communicate with the kami spirits. Shinto is a grassroot religion, where individuals can identify closely with. Religion in Australia pre-1945 Arrival and establishment of Christianity and TWO other religious traditions in Australia ChristianityComing onto the shores at Sydney Cove on 26th January 1788 were followers of the Church of England, Catholics, Methodists, presbyterians, Jews, deists, agnostics and unbelievers. The arrival of Christianity in Australia is linked to the colonisation of Australia by the British. Christianity first arrived in Australia 1788 with the first fleet part of the English penal colony of NSW.The officials in the party were mostly English and the Church of England was regarded as the established religion of NSW.For the first years of colonisation, the Church of England was the dominant denomination and was closely linked with the British government. Rev. Richard Johnson, a minister of the Church of England was the first chaplain to the colony. The history of political and religious divide between the English and the Irish ensured that the bitter rivalry continued to affect the life of the colony (Sectarianism) since the days of the reformation. It was not only religious differences but because England had invaded and ruled Ireland since the 16th century.Life in the colony was harsh. Many of its inhabitants were unruly and harsh punishments were commonly used to keep the convicts under control.The first governor, Arthur Phillip, supported the Church of England insisting that all convicts, no matter what beliefs, should attend that church services on Sunday. Marriages in the colony were not considered valid unless performed and recorded by a Church of England clergyman. Many refused to legalise’ their union.Early colonial Australia was marked by this imported sectarianism and by swings between official tolerance and intolerance.Catholic and Jewish convicts were given no opportunity to express their faiths. Non-conformists were ignored. Governor Macquarie’s replacement in 1821, Thomas Brisbane was mainly supportive of the Church of England. He broke the monopoly on government gains giving assistance to Catholic and Methodists ministries to help reduce the ‘barbarous ignorance and total want of education’ of convicts. Governor Darling in NSW and Governor Arthur in Tasmania continued this policy until 1836 when Governor Bourke accepted the passage of the Church Act, providing government subsidies for salaries and church buildings becoming the 4 officially recognised Christian denominations in Australia: Church of England, Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian.The first Australian Catholic mass was celebrated in the new colony in 1803 carried out by Fr. John Dixon who was also a convict. He was banned by the governor from further priestly duties. Church of Rome (Roman Catholic)Australian beginnings - the Catholic church was Irish convicts. They were there because of their poverty and English oppression -> rebellion.Irish Catholic were give more piety than others in the colony. Father John Therry became advisor, banker and confidant of the Irish Catholic community. His many battles with the authorities eventually lead to the loss of his official commission in 1825.In the 1860s, 12 religious orders entered Australian dioceses to set up schools, hospitals and hostels, Good Samaritan sisters (1857) and the Sisters of St. Joseph (1866).Non-conformist churches (Congregationalists and Methodists)A number of missionaries from the Congregationalist Church - sponsored London Missionary Society arrived in NSW in 1798 having fled unrest in the Pacific Islands. They assisted Samuel Marsden, the colony’s 2nd Church of England chaplain to start the Christian institutions in Australia.Methodist ministers were active in Australia from the early 19th century. The lack of clergy didn’t hold back Methodism. All streams of Methodism had a strong commitment to evangelism as well as missionary work in Aus. and Pacific. Methodists were heavily involved in education, hospitals, homes for the aged and other social welfare concerns. The Methodist denomination disappeared in 1976 when Uniting Church was formed carrying most beliefs and concerns. Presbyterians or Church of ScotlandThe 1st Presbyterian service in Aus held in 1975 by Thomas Muir, a Scottish elder and convict.John Dunmore Lang arrived in NSW in 1823. He demanded that privileges extended by the colonial gov to the Church of England should be applied to his church.1830 - Lang instituted a migration program to bring Scottish tradesmen to Australia. He sponsored a significant number of Presbyterians to emigrate to Aus to escape the poverty of Scotland and ensure a Protestant ‘character’ to NSW.LutheransSouth Aus founded without convicts in 1836 attracting many who had deep religious convictions and chafed religious discrimination in Europe. It was a haven for Lutherans escaping religious persecution in Germany.1837 - Lutheran missionaries worked with Indigenous people in Qld, South Aus and NT spreading to PNG in 1886. Greek OrthodoxSydney Gazette of 1818 mentioned Greek Orthodox adherents in Eastern Aus. Greek nationals took part in the gold rushes and by the end of the 19th century, Orthodox communities were in Sydney and Melbourne. JudaismIslam Judaism has been in Aus since the First Fleet. By 1820, there were several hundred Jewish convicts. Many came in the late 1820s as free settlers, many merchants and organised worship in 1828 in a private house and in 1844, worshipped in a synagogue in York St, Sydney.During the 1830s, services were held in homes such as Phillip Joseph Cohen who was authorised to perform Jewish marriages. The 1st Jewish institution, the Chevra Kadisha (or Jewish Burial Society) in 1817. Also in 1817, the first minyan which is a quorum of 10 Jewish men were formed.As Jews migrated to other colonies, by the 1840s there were congregation worshipping in Hobart, Launceston, Melbourne and Adelaide. With many Jews taking part in Australian gold rushes especially in Victoria (1843), congregations were established in 1864 in Brisbane and 1892 in Perth. Western Australia had no organised Jewish community developed until the end of the 19th century even though Jews had lived there since 1829 onwards.Anti-Semitic programs in Eastern Europe and Russia (1890s) & the Nazi regime’s attempt to exterminate Jews in Europe -> increase of emigration to Aus peaking in the 1930s and late 1940s.Islam could’ve reached Aus with the Macassan trepang fishers from Indonesia or contact might be older in the 16th century visiting Western Aus before 1788. They buried their dead here and some practices were observed by local Aborigines but their beliefs didn’t have a great impact. Pakistani, Afghani and Turkish (Afghans and Muslims) camel drivers were brought to Aus in the 2nd half of the 19th century to assist in opening up the inland. Camel transportation → seen as effective method of traveling the vast desert area of aus interior. Their work on the overland telegraph line (completed in 1861) is commemorated by the central Australian train - the Ghan.Many of these Muslims returned to their own countries at the end of the 19th century to rejoin their families.In the 1920s, there was the end of the camel transport industry -> Muslims HAD to leave Australia.They built the first Aus mosques in Adelaide about 1895, Perth 1905 and later in Broken Hill and Alice Springs. Issues related to the development of Christianity in Australia pre-1945: Sectarianism Sectarianism refers to rivalry or division along religious lines. This may lead to violence, discrimination and persecution. Sectarianism may be due to social and political reasons as well as religious reasons. In 1788 (the first fleet) there war rivalry and bitterness between the church of England and the Catholics in England and Ireland. The church of England enjoyed many privileges Stemmed from two main sources:Protestant reformation 16th centuryBitterness between Catholics and Protestants in all walks of lifeEnglish occupation of IrelandA political issue however religion featured strongly, thus, sectarianism With establishment of the colony in NSW sectarianism was a major issue as the Church of England was the main religion and Catholics were a small minority who were treated harshly. Everybody (regardless of religion) was expected to attend the Church of England Sunday worship. Catholics were not permitted to have a priest as the Church of England feared this would bring Sedition. (as from the 1795 uprising led by Irish Catholic clergy) Castle hill rebellion took place in 1804 Irish Catholics were seen as ‘scum’, uneducated, immoral (de-facto relationships) and irreligious (refusing to be baptised) Catholics wanted to establish Catholic schools but the government made it difficult. Though Catholic’s pushed forward. Employment problems in the early 1900’s where businesses were run by Protestants and employers didn’t trust Catholics. Discrimination of Catholics regarding employment. This was also advertised as: ‘Catholics need not apply’ The public service didn’t do this as many Catholics worked there. Thus, Catholic schools held an annual public service examination to provide secure employment. ConscriptionCatholics and Protestants fought over conscription of WWI. Government wanted conscription, though for it to happen there needed to be a successful referendum. Protestants = for conscriptionCatholics = against conscription (though also some Protestants as Catholics were only 10%)Softening of sectarian rivalry during the great depression after WWI & WWII Social welfare Major focus within religion during the 21st century, developed 19th century. Provided by Christian churches (1788-1945) Allows spiritual guidance and physical needsAssisted immigration scheme of Irish because of the Irish famine (1850’s) EducationSought to assist disadvantaged as it is Christian ethos1866 by Mary Mackillop and Father Julian Tennison Woods founded Order of St Joseph to teach childrenPublic Instruction Act allowed Catholic schools to survive. Was expensive though increase of free settlers with religions made this more popularPrior 1862: church provides bulk of education (1825) School Estate Corporation Charter gave Anglican church 1/7 land grants aka. Unfair(1836) Church Act promoted building of churchesSmaller denominations missed outGovernment realised importance of religion through its morality, education and social welfare. Church act benefits all denominations as the Church of England was no longer the established church. Congregationalists disagreed as they believed education should be secular (seperate from religion) (1862) Public Institutions act removed state aid and made it free secular education aka. CompulsoryEstablished Catholic Education System and the Pope Pius IX rejected secular education Schools taught by nunsBy the 20th century: low fee Catholic schools (thx Mary Mackillop) Social services from CatholicsSisters of Charity (1838)professional nurses responsible for pastoral care at a Female factory that helped women and childrenVisited hospitals, prisons, Catholic orphanages, taught at schools, ran education and visited homes. Established St Vincent’s Hospital (1857) for the sick/poor regardless of religion, providing a refutation of sectarianism Opened St Vincent’s school for Girls (1858) The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick (1854) Taken over by St Vincent de Paul society Provides assistance for the poor, homeless and aged. Organises visits to hospital and prisonGold rush caused population to increaseEstablished their first orphanage in 1857 including classrooms and outhouses to teach trades. Order of the Good Samaritan (1857)Established by nuns to work with prostitutesSupplied for the poor with food and clothing, education and pastoral careDuty to look after the poor and dispossessed after Pope Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical. Social services from ProtestantsIncreased social services for the needs of AustraliansThe Benevolent Society of NSW (1817)Followed the society for promoting christian knowledge and benevolence Still existing and provide for needs of communityVolunteer district nursingOpened the first asylum for the poor, blind, aged and infirmEstablished first Australian maternity hospital (1866) Lobbed for free legal aid and old age pensionAnglicare (1815)Worked with local parishes to provide social welfare. Sydney Rescue Work Society (1882) Aimed to help the poor, women and children. Central Methodist Mission (1884) To combine social action with the gospel(1901) Archdeacon Boyce made sure slums were cleared, pensions were provisioned and changes to labour laws were made. He also established a scheme to help unemployed men with homes.The contribution of ONE religious tradition in Australia to each of the following pre-1945: Rural and outback communities Christian Ethos Christian denominations have traditionally recognised that rural and outback communities are placed at a distinct disadvantage because they lack access to many services available in the urban centres. The role of Christianity in rural and outback communities pre-1945 was mixed and sectarian in nature. Bush BrotherhoodsOne of the most significant chaplaincy movements to emerge in the 19th century was the Anglican ministry in remote country areas. Scattered parishes, the vastness of the Australian continent and the slowness of the Church of England authorities to create bishoprics meant that there was little if any church supervision in the bush. The brotherhood's relied on clergy recruited from England. The St. Andrew’s Bush Brotherhood was established in 1897 in Longreach, Queensland by Nathaniel Dawe. There were a number of different orders of Bush Brothers but all operated on a similar basis of an almost monastic life, committed to: Temporary vows of poverty, chastity and obedience Periodic returns from the bush to a community house for spiritual replenishment Obedience to a warden or principal (often a bishop)The duties included: Giving religious instruction in schools Holding services Administering sacraments. Bush Church Aid Society Was an attempt by the evangelical Sydney Anglicans to capture the dioceses from the influence of the bush brotherhoods with their strongly Anglo-Catholic stance. Social services (such as education) were entirely under the control of Catholic nuns and brother, who had established convent schools in places the married Anglicans clergy had refused to go. A mission to the bush was also an escape route for conservative Sydney evangelicals, who besieged by the increasingly liberalising forces around them. The BCA was launched on May 26, 1919 taking over places where the brotherhoods had failed, particularly the settled rural areas and townships. The BCA developed a reputation for health-care services, its hostels for young people and its innovative use of aeroplanes. Australian Inland MissionFounded by Presbyterian Minister John FLynn who went on a mission to shearers in 1909 and in 1912. The organisation brought a range of religious, health, pastoral and other services for Europeans in outback Australian. Flynn used the modern inventions of the wireless and the aeroplane to establish the Flying Doctor Service in late 1920s to provide reliable medical assistance for people in medical ned in remote areas. The School of Air was an offshoot of the introduction of the wireless in the bush, providing education to remote areas. As the successor in the Uniting Church to the Australian Inland Mission, Frontier services has sought to work with and empower communities and individuals to overcome the disadvantages of living in remote locations for more than 100 yearsEducation Critical Issue Education was critical issue for all religious groups but particularly for the Catholics who felt disadvantaged in the colony. The sectarian tension allowed Catholics to create an educational system which allowed them to maintain their values. The critical effect of Christian on education up to 1945 can be seen by examining 3 key pieces of legislationSchool Estates Corporation Charter (1825)Was instituted with the intent of providing resources exclusively for Church of England schools and churches and thus reinforcing the Church of England as the established Church Its provisions were that 17 if all colonial land grants were to be reserved for Church of England and churches. Achieved its purpose with the Church of England obtaining large areas of land under the patronage of the colonial governmentOther denominations were concerned that the legislation made no provision for their efforts in educating their children Church Act (1836) Establish in 1836 by Governor Burke Provided a “pound for pound” subsidy for all religious groups - every pound raised by the denomination for its schools the government would contribute the same amount Was put in place to continue the dominance held by the Church of England because they had the greatest capacity to raise the money. The immediate effects were as intended: The Church of England gaining the greatest benefit due to its greater capacity to raise funds from its communitiesThe long-term result of this legislation was however, unexpected: This was because the Catholics through a great deal of determination, organisation and sacrifice managed to take advantage of the provisions of the Church Act The government was pressured to change legislation so that Catholics could not take advantage The act contributed to the rural vs. urban class divide because churches in rural areas, being smaller in number, were less able to raise such funds and subsequently received fewer benefits. Public Instruction Act Act was introduced in 1880 by Premier Henry Parkes Provided for an education which was free, compulsory and secular thus formalising public education Hardships occurred as Catholics were over represented in the poorer classes which meant they did not have the same resources as the Church of England to maintain their system of education The Catholic School System only survived as a result of the dedication from those in religious orders. Mary Mackillop Co-founded the Catholic educational facilities with father Julian Tenison Woods, the Sisters of St Joseph who were devoted to caring for and teaching disadvantaged children in South Australia in the mid-19th century. Mary Mackillop won papal support for her independence from interference by the Australian bishopsHer greatness was recognised in her beatification in 1995 and in 2010, her canonisation to be Saint Mary of the Cross, Australia’s 1st Catholic SaintDuring these years, prior to 1945, many other Christian denominations also developed schools, many of which continue as significant independent schools today. To provide education for rural and outback communities a number of these schools included boarding houses for students. Public MoralityRefers to the attempts made by the more conservative elements within Christian denominations to enforce certain moral values through legislation. Despite the well intended attempts at social control, public morality legislation was not always successful and in fact, it has contributed to society’s ambivalent attitude towards religion Sabbatarianism The fact that the colony was set up with the Church of England as the established religion provided for the strong influence in the colony and the demand for Sabbath observance The government’s requirement of Sabbath observance was the compulsory attendance of Church of England services for all convicts both English and Irish The intention of this requirement was to seek to improve the moral character of the convicts The strong stance of Sabbath observance supported by the evangelical groups of Christians resulted in legislation abolishing recreational activities along with servile and commercial labour on Sundays. Sexual Morality Christianity had a very significant and clearly identifiable effect concerning sexual morality There was a widespread opposition from all Christian denominations towards extramarital relationships, homosexuality and divorce. With unified religious opposition to these perceived instances of immorality it is not surprising that laws governing sexual morality were quite strict and divorce laws ensured that it was difficult to terminate a marriage in any circumstancesTemperance Movement Mostly sponsored by the desire of Protestant denominations who wished to reduce alcohol consumption Some conservative elements believed that total abstinence was necessary, calling upon men to take a pledge to abstain from alcohol Women were often used as sponsors of the movement as they were most frequently victims of alcohol related problems Despite the influence, legislation to prohibit the selling of liquor in Australia was never achieved as the Church of England and Catholic Church authorities generally saw no harm of the drinking alcohol, in moderation Gambling Christianity was influential in the banning of gambling in early Australian society because gain by methods other than honest labour was denounced by most Christian denominationsThe Catholic Church, however, did not hold any moral objections to gambling providing that it was not excessiveCensorshipsChristian attempts to control ideas can also be seen in the troubled history of censorship The prohibition of the sale of certain books and magazines, the banning of some plays and films and the cutting of the text of various plays grew out of the Christian conviction that were certain forms of behaviour that were intrinsically corrupt or blasphemous and that should not be published, performed or broadcastIn general these attempts at social control, often referred to as wowserism which were viewed negatively and led to gradual lessening of religious influence on society. The public morality debates also heightened the religious tensions between the Church of England, The Catholic Church and the conservative Protestant denominations in early Australian society ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download