Masaryk University



BVAJ0121 – PODZIMN? SEMESTRSupplementary activities for consolidating vocabulary and grammar as well as practising language skills and teaching functional language using students’expertise1.?t?den: ?vod. UNIT 1: The Human Body. Téma: At the Doctor's. Poslech: Medical examination. 2.?t?den: UNIT 2: Musculoskeletal System – Anatomy and Pathology. Téma: Injuries. Poslech: Scoliosis. MUSCULAR SYSTEM - the power of mineralsAim: to practise the language of speculation and deductionto practise reading for gist and detailto practise reformulationStages&tasks&instructions:Ss speculate about the role of minerals on the human body (Which?, How?, Why?)all Ss read the introductory paragraph to confirm the informationtext divided into a+b and c+d – Ss in pairs read just a halfSs share information with each otherMuscle cramps and mineral deficiencyCan muscle cramps and pains be linked to mineral deficiencies and can taking mineral supplements cure the problem?Can muscle cramps and pains be linked to mineral deficiencies and can taking mineral supplements cure the problem?Why some people get muscle crampsMany people experience cramps when they sleep, which can be associated with excruciating pain. Athletes, on the other hand, tend to develop muscle cramps when they are exercising.A wide variety of factors can cause muscles to contract painfully. The following are common causes:A mineral deficiency involving potassium, calcium, magnesium and/or sodium.Dehydration, which can occur in athletes when they exercise hard in hot conditions and do not drink sufficient liquid.Excessive intake of fluid (drinking 2-3 litres or more of water in addition to your daily fluid intake) - this can ‘wash’ the above-mentioned minerals out of your body and lead to cramps.Lack of fitness - well-trained muscles are less likely to cramp. Although this mainly applies to athletes, people who are not fit and get too little exercise often develop cramps because their muscles are so poorly used.Wearing tight constrictive clothing, especially in bed. Try to wear comfortable, loosely fitting clothes at all times (be comfortable, rather than stylish if you are plagued by cramps), as constriction of the blood supply to muscles can cause them to contract painfully.Minerals that play a roleThere are four minerals that can influence how a muscle contracts, namely calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium.a) CalciumMost people are not aware of the fact that calcium is essential for the normal contraction of muscle tissues, including those of the heart. Patients with extremely low blood calcium levels can develop a condition called tetani where the muscles fibres contract continuously. When this occurs, heart failure can ensue.Fortunately, such severe calcium deficiencies are rare, but on the other hand, sub-optimal calcium intakes are relatively common, especially in teenagers and young women who cut out calcium-rich foods like milk and dairy products because they are afraid of gaining weight. If you hardly drink any milk and never eat yoghurt, or cheeses, you may well be inclined to a subclinical calcium deficiency and will need to top up on these foods or take a calcium supplement (Calcium Sandoz or Caltrate or Berroca Calcium, for example).b) MagnesiumOnce again, outright magnesium deficiencies are relatively rare, but people eating a western diet that lacks fresh fruit, vegetables, legumes and unprocessed grains and cereals, may well have inadequate intakes. If you suffer from muscle cramps, you can try increasing your intakes of the foods listed above (especially green, leafy vegetables such as spinach, cabbage, lettuce, broccoli) or take a calcium and magnesium supplement (taking these two minerals together improves their mutual absorption).Note: Magnesium, if taken in excess, can cause diarrhoea. You may have to take your Slow-Mag or Magnesite supplements only every second day.c) PotassiumPotassium is one of the most abundant minerals available in common foods and most people should not develop a deficiency. However, eating minimalistic or monotonous diets to lose weight or cutting out all fruits and vegetables and grains and cereals, can cause a potassium deficiency. Drinking too much water can also deplete your potassium reserves.The easiest way of ensuring that you have abundant potassium is to eat five or more servings of fruit and/or vegetables a day. If you think you lack potassium, buy a variety of fresh or frozen vegetables and boil them lightly in chicken stock to make a delicious, fat-free soup that is loaded with potassium. If you have a juicer, make an apple or grape and carrot drink to boost your potassium intake.Potassium supplements should preferably only be taken if your potassium levels have been checked by a medical doctor and have been found to be low.Potassium supplements should also only be taken under the supervision of your doctor, because a number of medications can influence the potassium levels in the body - for example, the so-called ‘potassium-sparing diuretics’ prevent loss of potassium from the body. If you take a potassium supplement, you could develop hyperkalaemia (excess potassium in the blood), which is also harmful. So rather eat fruit and vegetables and whole grains to top up on potassium, unless your doctor has prescribed supplements like ‘Slow-K’ for you.d) SodiumMost people on a western diet, which is based on processed foods, won’t develop a sodium deficiency. However, drinking too much water, sweating a lot, and certain imbalances in kidney function can lead to sodium depletion, which in turn can cause cramps.If you do a lot of exercise in hot weather or if you are an athlete training hard, you need to make sure that you are getting some sodium in your diet. Luckily, most sports drinks like Energade and Powerade contain sodium to assist with hydration, so drink some while you exercise and during the recovery phase.People who develop cramps and do not eat any salt or use salt substitutes (which are rich in potassium) should consider that they might have a sodium deficiency. Try adding a pinch of table salt to your food for a week or two to see if this alleviates the problem.Other tips on preventing crampsGet as fit as possible - the fitter you are, the fewer cramps you will develop.Drink sufficient liquid to prevent dehydration, but don’t overdo your fluid intake.Follow a low-fat diet to prevent clogged arteries as poor blood circulation to the limbs can cause cramps.Do stretching exercises every day, especially with the muscles that tend to cramp.Wear loose, comfortable clothes, especially at night. alternative text for the same type of reading Bone health and milkA healthy, balanced diet is vital for the normal development and maintenance of the skeleton.Nutrition, bone health and the milk issue Bone is a living, dynamic, metabolically active tissue. It is also a specialized connective tissue, composed of a collagen (protein) framework permeated with mineral salts, composed of mostly calcium and phosphate, together with trace amounts of other minerals and ions.A healthy, balanced diet containing both macronutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), plus sufficient calories, is vital for both the normal development and maintenance of the skeleton.The importance of calcium and Vitamin D in bone health??????????????????????????????????????? Calcium is a major structural component of bone tissue. It is deposited in bone as hydroxy-appatite which confers strength to the skeleton. Approximately 99% of calcium is stored in the bones and teeth. Vitamin D is also essential for the development and maintenance of bone, both for its role in assisting calcium absorption from food in the intestine, and for ensuring optimal formation and mineralization of bone tissue.A number of research studies have demonstrated the importance of nutrition in bone health. Intervention trials carried out over three years in children and adolescents have shown that supplementation with calcium, dairy calcium-enriched foods, liquid milk, or calcium-enriched milk powder enhances the rate of bone mineral acquisition, compared with un-supplemented (placebo) control groups (1-4).In studies among adults, one three-year intervention study in healthy young women aged 30-42 years showed that supplementing the usual diet with dairy foods prevented bone loss in the spine, compared with control subjects who did not increase their dairy intake (5). In post-menopausal women and the elderly, several intervention studies have shown that calcium or milk supplementation slows the rate of bone loss (6-15).In a study carried out in healthy, elderly women living in nursing homes, calcium (1200mg/day) and vitamin D (800IU/day) supplementation over 18months reduced the risk of hip fractures and other non-vertebral fractures (7). A similar intervention over three years of calcium (500mg/day) and vitamin D (700IU/day) was shown to reduce bone loss and the incidence of non-vertebral fractures in elderly men and women living at home and not in institutions (6). In comparative intervention studies, dairy food supplements and calcium supplements were equally effective in preserving hip-bone mass in postmenopausal women (13,15).?? These studies were however not designed to evaluate reductions in fracture rates.Vitamin D is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight (ultraviolet B rays) and can also be obtained from food and dietary supplements. The sun provides a source of vitamin D in varying amounts for different individuals, dietary recommendations for vitamin D are therefore approximate. Emerging evidence and expert opinion suggests that the minimum blood level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D optimal for fracture prevention is 70-80 nmol/l (16). To achieve this, the average older person would need a vitamin D intake of at least 800-1000 IU/day.Dietary or supplemental vitamin D increases in importance during the winter months (especially in the Cape Province and those areas that experience winter rainfall) and for elderly, institutionalised people in whom the capacity for skin synthesis of vitamin D is reduced. Block-out sunscreens and darker skins also cause less absorption of Vitamin D. Mild degrees of vitamin D deficiency are very common, and in the long term can predispose one to osteoporosis. Without a sufficient supply of vitamin D from the skin or diet, the metabolism of calcium is disturbed. A low vitamin D level causes inefficient absorption of calcium from the intestine. This causes an increase in PTH levels, leading to over-extraction of calcium from the skeleton, bone loss and ultimately osteoporosis. Poor vitamin D status in the elderly also increases the likelihood of falling (and therefore fractures), because vitamin D is also important for the correct functioning of the muscles and nervous system (17).Milk: good or bad for bones????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Milk makes a very valuable contribution to a healthy diet as it contains all the macro-nutrients (protein, carbohydrates and fat). Milk protein also contains the essential amino acids needed by the body. The carbohydrate, lactose, supplies energy and aids the absorption of calcium. Milk is considered globally to be the best source of calcium because of its high calcium content, the absence of factors that may influence the absorption thereof (such as phytates and oxalates in green, leafy vegetables) and the presence of lactose, which aids in the absorption of calcium.????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????Milk also contains significant amounts of minerals and trace-elements like calcium, phosphate, magnesium and selenium, and vitamins A, D and B (riboflavin and niacin), needed for bone health as well as general health.??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Does the protein in milk cause calcium loss????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????In the Framingham study, elderly men and women with low protein intakes had greater rates of hip and spine bone loss than those consuming higher amounts of protein (18). There is also evidence that increasing protein intake has a favourable effect on bone mineral density in elderly men and women receiving calcium and vitamin D supplements, suggesting a synergistic effect of these nutrients in improving skeletal health (19).Despite this evidence, there has been speculation that a higher dietary intake of protein could have negative effects on calcium metabolism and could possibly induce bone-loss. This relates to the hypothesis that the ‘acid-base balance’ of the diet is a potential risk factor for osteoporosis and if a diet contains predominantly acidic foods (which include key protein sources) and does not contain sufficient alkali-rich basic foods (fruits and vegetables), the alkaline salts of the skeleton may be drawn on to buffer this effect and in the long term lead to bone loss (20). Although there is some evidence from observational studies that a more alkaline diet is beneficial to bone health in pre- and post-menopausal women (21), the theory has not been proven in more definitive clinical trials.Vitamin KVitamin K is needed for the production and functioning of osteocalcin. Osteocalcin is the second most abundant protein in bone after collagen, and is required for bone mineralization. Some evidence suggests that low dietary intake of vitamin K or low vitamin K status could contribute to low BMD and increased risk of fragility fractures in the elderly because of the impaired functionality of osteocalcin (22,23). Good food sources of vitamin K include leafy green vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, cabbage and kale, liver, and some fermented foods such as fermented cheeses and natto (fermented soybeans).MagnesiumThe mineral magnesium is important for calcium homeostasis and in the formation of hydroxyapatite (bone mineral). Severe experimental magnesium deficiency results inimpaired bone structure and function (24), but this level of depletion is rarely observed in generally well-nourished human populations. Magnesium is fairly widespread in the food chain; particularly good sources include green vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, unrefined grains, and fish. The elderly could potentially be at risk of mild magnesium deficiency, as magnesium absorption decreases and renal excretion of magnesium increases with age. Older people are also more likely to be taking certain medications that can increase magnesium loss in the urine, such as loop and thiazide diuretics, cancer medications or antibiotics. Alcoholics and diabetics are also more prone to magnesium deficiency. However, there are no studies to date which demonstrate that magnesium supplementation is useful either in preventing bone loss or reducing fracture risk.ZincThe mineral zinc is a constituent of the hydroxyapatite mineral crystals of bone, and plays a role in the regulation of bone turnover. Zinc is also needed for the correct functioning of alkaline phosphatase, which is required for bone mineralization. Mild degrees of zinc deficiency have been reported in the elderly and could potentially contribute to poor bone status.An observational study in middle-aged and elderly men showed that men with the lowest blood zinc levels had lower BMD than those with the highest blood zinc levels, and that dietary zinc intake and blood levels were lower in men with osteoporosis than in those with a normal BMD (25). Another study in postmenopausal women indicated that the bone-trophic effects of zinc could be mediated, at least in part, via a decrease in the blood levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) (26). Lean red meat and meat products, poultry, whole grain cereals, pulses and legumes are good sources of zinc.Summary???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Good nutrition alone will neither prevent nor cure osteoporosis, but in the context of a bone friendly lifestyle (exercise, stop smoking, limit alcohol intake) it is probably the more pleasurable and easiest task on the list!Teréza Hough CEO, National Osteoporosis Foundation South Africa (NOFSA), 2010 or false?Aim: to practise the language of agreement/disagreement and giving personal opinionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:- Ss read the text and discuss the individual tips – Do you agree or disagree with the tips?Osteoporosis and dietA healthy diet throughout the different life stages may play a role in the prevention of osteoporosis - a condition which is usually associated with old age. HYPERLINK "" Although osteoporosis usually only manifests in old age, many of the factors that predispose men, and particularly women, to develop this disease play a role from as early as the teenage years. A healthy diet throughout the different life stages may, however, play a role in its prevention. What is osteoporosis?Osteoporosis is defined as a condition where the amount of bone in the skeleton decreases so that bones become porous and brittle. This decrease in bone mass undermines the structure of the bones making people vulnerable to fractures.Such fractures of the hip, leg, arm and neck bones cause a great deal of suffering, necessitate very expensive surgery, and can even be the cause of death. Osteoporosis, therefore, sharply decreases the quality of life of older men and women.What factors influence osteoporosis?The two most important factors that determine if someone is going to develop osteoporosis, are 'peak bone mass' and the rate at which this maximum amount of bone is lost over time.Peak bone mass is in turn influenced by:Genetic factors - some individuals have a lighter and more brittle skeleton from birthHow the skeleton is used - people who do plenty of load-bearing exercise all their lives have a higher peak bone mass than those who lead sedentary livesNutritional intake, particularly of calcium, and proteinGender - women have a lower peak bone mass than menRace - black people tend to have a much higher peak bone mass than Caucasians and Asians which is why osteoporosis is relatively unknown in Africa generally.Cigarette smoking decreases peak bone mass and should be avoidedExcessive alcohol intake also has a negative impact and drinking should always be kept at a moderate levelSelf-imposed starvation (anorexia) can have a disastrous effect on peak bone mass and cause osteoporosis at a much earlier age than normalBone loss is influenced by the following:Because women start out with a lower peak bone mass than men, they also tend to lose more bone and at a faster rate than men as they ageMenopause - lack of oestrogen speeds up bone lossLack of exercise is also linked to increased bone lossLow calcium intake accelerates bone lossSmoking and alcohol abuseIncreasing age - bone loss increases with ageNulliparity - not ever having given birth to a babyHow to prevent osteoporosisWe can't influence our genetic makeup, our gender, race, or age, but it is possible to take precautions which can prevent osteoporosis.5 steps to prevent osteoporosisBe active, do exercise, especially so-called load-bearing exercises all your lifeDon't smoke or abuse alcoholTake hormone replacement therapy (HRT) after the menopause (early or late menopause)Never starve yourself or allow yourself to develop anorexia - go for help immediatelyEat a balanced diet rich in calcium all your life, but particularly during the early years when your body is depositing calcium in the bones to ensure an adequate peak bone mass for the rest of your lifeBone density determinationsIt is a good idea to have bone density determinations done if you fall into any of the above mentioned risk categories, e.g. white females who smoke, drink alcohol, do not exercise and have a low calcium intake, or any woman over the age of 40. - (Dr I.V. van Heerden, DietDoc) Aim: to practise question formation the language of agreement/disagreement and giving personal opinionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:T - Create a questionnaire and find out if you and your family members have sufficient intake of calcium.Ss work in pairsa S asks their Qs to a S from a different team + gives advice on calcium rich dietCalcium content of common foodsHere is a table with the approximate calcium content (mg) per 100g of foods.Milk products:Fish:Full-cream milk119Pilchards in tomato300Low-fat milk (2%)122Salmon (with bones)239Skim milk123Sardines, canned382Soya milk*4Rice milk*20Cheeses:Soya products & legumes:Cheddar721Soya beans102Low-fat cottage60Tofu372Feta492Soya mince49Gouda700Baked beans in tomato50Mozzarella517Lentils27Ricotta272Sugar beans32Yoghurt & other dairy:Nuts:Low fat, sweetened152Almonds247Plain, full cream121Hazelnuts188Plain, fat free199Peanuts88Walnuts94Vegetables & fruit:Seeds:Broccoli46Sesame131Cabbage33Linseed250Spinach136Sunflower116Orange40Cereals:Bread:Pronutro, wholewheat460Brown55Muesli63White56Whole-wheat57* If fortified with calcium, will contain more per 100g: UNIT 3: Cardiovascular System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Gramatika: Trpn? rod I. Poslech: Internal Medicine – Heart. Téma: In Hospital.Heart vs. CV systemAim: to practise the language of negotiationto practise process descriptionto practise presentation and listening skillsto brainstorm topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:pairs – prepare a short presentation on how the heart or CV system workSs in pairs have 1 picture (heart or CV system) – 3 minutes to “tell a story” describing the flow of blood (parts, functions, processes etc.)groups of 4 Ss– each pair gives a short presentation based on picture descriptionFollow-up - BUPA video – How the heart works: to practise listening skillsto check and practise topic-related vocabulary pronunciationStages&tasks&instructions:Ss watch video to check pronunciation of the key wordsT-asks Qs (H-O/screen) to make sure pronunciation is correctCV error dictation (text from Cambridge English for Nursing Intermediate)Aim: to practise listening for detailStages&tasks&instructions:-T reads a text about how the heart works (slowly) + Ss spot and correct mistakesSkipping breakfast brings a heart attack riskAim: to practise examination reading task&skillsStages&tasks&instructions:the headline and the picture are on the screen + Ss discuss the topic (Is such effect possible?) and present their argumentsa list of statements on the screen + Ss predict/guess T/F answers:The study was carried out only in men.People who skip breakfast tend to overeat in the evening.The researchers also studied the breakfast composition.People who eat breakfast generally eat healthier food.Approximately 20 per cent of population skip breakfast.Ss work in pairs and put the individual paragraphs (all text or its first half only was cut up into paragraphs) in the right order – class checkSs read the text to check their T/F answers + discussionSkipping breakfast raises risk of heart attacks 27%, a new study suggestsAnother reason to eat breakfast: Skipping it may increase your chances of a heart attack.A study of older men found those who regularly skipped breakfast had a 27% higher risk of a heart attack than those who ate a morning meal. There's no reason why the results wouldn't apply to other people, too, the Harvard researchers said.Why would skipping breakfast be a heart attack risk? Experts aren't certain, but here's what they think: People who don't eat breakfast are more likely to be hungrier later in the day and eat larger meals. Those meals mean the body must process a larger amount of kilojoules in a shorter amount of time. That can spike sugar levels in the blood and perhaps lead to clogged arteries.The researchers did not ask what the study participants ate for breakfast and were not prepared to pass judgment on whether a fatty, sugary breakfast is better than no breakfast at all."We don't know whether it's the timing or content of breakfast that's important. It's probably both," said Andrew Odegaard, a University of Minnesota researcher who has studied a link between skipping breakfast and health problems like obesity and high blood pressure."Generally, people who eat breakfast tend to eat a healthier diet," he added.How the study was done The new research was released Monday by the journal Circulation. It was an observational study, so it's not designed to prove a cause and effect. But when done well, such studies can reveal important health risks.The researchers surveyed nearly 27 000 men about their eating habits in 1992. About 13% of them said they regularly skipped breakfast. They all were educated health professionals — like dentists and veterinarians — and were at least 45.Over the next 16 years, 1 527 suffered fatal or non-fatal heart attacks, including 171 who had said they regularly skipped breakfast.In other words, over 7% of the men who skipped breakfast had heart attacks, compared to nearly 6% of those who ate breakfast.The researchers calculated the increased risk at 27%, taking into account other factors like smoking, drinking, diet and health problems like high blood pressure and obesity.As many as 18% of US adults regularly skip breakfast, according to federal estimates. So the study could be important news for many, said Eric Rimm, one of the study authors at the Harvard School of Public Health."It's a really simple message," he said. "Breakfast is an important meal." up to grammar presentation - writing a (case) report (using the verbs in intalics in passive form in all tenses) – the patient was hospitalised with…, he had been struck by…,was examined, given, taken blood pressure and blood sample…, was advised on diet…the drugs were administered…has just been released4.?t?den: UNIT 4: Haematic and Lymphatic System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Gramatika: Trpn? rod II. Poslech: Blood. Téma: Feeling IllBlood quiz Aim: to practise the formation of subject vs. object questionsStages&tasks&instructions:A x B students – forming, asking and answering questions, confirming answersT – monitors + gives extra task to fastfinishers ( H-O A – find an example of a subject question-no.5)Cholesterol in questions and answersAim: to practise the language of presenting personal opinionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:T- How much do you know about cholesterol? Let’s find out…pairs – cover the text - look at a question (one at a time) + predict and discuss the answer – read and check-…What is CHOLESTEROL?Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in body cells of humans and animals. Sometimes cholesterol is referred to as "good" cholesterol and "bad" cholesterol. Actually these descriptions refer to the substances, called lipoproteins, that carry cholesterol throughout the body in the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are a combination of varying amounts of fats and proteins.What is "good" cholesterol?"Good" cholesterol is associated with high density lipoproteins (HDLs). HDLs are believed to remove excess cholesterol from the body, therefore higher levels of HDLs are also believed to be associated with lower rates of heart disease.What is "bad" cholesterol?"Bad" cholesterol is associated with low density lipoproteins (LDLs). LDLs carry holesterol in the blood to body cells. High levels of LDLs are usually associated with an elevated blood cholesterol and an increased risk of heart disease due to cholesterol and fat being deposited in the arteries. These fatty deposits decrease the interior size of the arteries so the blood supply is reduced, thus increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.How can HDL and LDL levels be controlled?There is no proven way to control HDL and LDL levels, but diet may play a part. Current studies are also showing that exercise may increase "good" cholesterol levels in someindividuals.Where does cholesterol come from?Cholesterol in the body comes from two major sources. Foods of animal origin, such as meat, milk, and eggs, are one source. The other major source of cholesterol is that which is produced by the body, the majority of which comes from the liver.What does cholesterol do in the body?Cholesterol is required for the formation of bile acids which are needed for fat digestion. It is also used to make important hormones such as estrogen and progesterone and is involved in the formation of Vitamin D in the skin.What are the effects of excessive cholesterol and fats in the diet?Much controversy exists about fat, cholesterol and heart disease. Some medical experts believe that consumption of high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol lead to high bloodcholesterol and, in turn, to an increased risk of heart disease. Yet, other experts state that there is still no proof that reducing consumption of cholesterol will effectively reduce the incidence of heart disease. Other factors that have beenstrongly implicated in heart disease are stress, high blood pressure, smoking, obesity, diabetes, and a family history of heart disease.How does dietary fat influence cholesterol?To protect your heart, experts recommend that you reduce your overall fat intake - a measure considered by many to be even more important than eating less cholesterol. About 30% of our calories should come from fats. Many North Americans and Europeans get 40% of their calories from fat. Another protective measure involves replacing some of the saturated fats you now consume with polyunsaturated fats found in vegetables and fish. Saturated fats raise cholesterol levels in the blood while polyunsaturated fats lower them. Although it was once believed that monounsaturated fats had no effect on blood cholesterollevels, recent research studies suggest that a diet high in monounsaturated fatty acids is effective in reducing LDL levels while keeping HDL levels the same.Extra informationDietary fats are made up of three types of fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated. Fats containinga large amount of saturated fatty acids are hard at roomtemperature; less saturated fats are soft or liquid at roomtemperature. Thus, beef fat is more saturated than chicken fatand vegetable shortening is more saturated than vegetable oil. The table, below, shows the fatty acid composition of anumber of food fats.Type of Fat (%-Polyunsaturated %-Saturated %-Monounsaturated)Animal FatsButterfat 66 30 4Beef tallow 52 44 4Pork (lard) 38 46 7Vegetable OilsCoconut 92 6 1Palm kernel oil 86 12 2Palm oil 51 39 10 Cottonseed 28 21 50Peanut 21 50 28Margarine, soft 18 36 36Margarine, stick 17 59 25Sesame 15 40 40Corn 14 28 55Soybean 14 21 50Olive 14 75 7Sunflower 10 21 64Safflower 7 17 71Canola 6 62 32How can cholesterol and saturated fat intake be lowered?1. Avoid high cholesterol foods such as.............Egg yolk 213 mg Shrimp (3 1/2 oz., cooked) 96 mgBeef liver (4 oz., cooked) 500 mgButter (1 tablespoon) 31 mgWhole milk (1 cup) 35 mgCheddar or Swiss Cheese (1 oz.) 28 mgCottage cheese, 4% (1/2 cup) 17 mg2. Include lower cholesterol foods such as...........Egg white 0 mgEgg substitute 0 mg*Fish (4 oz., cooked) 75-100 mgBeef, pork or lamb (4 oz., cooked) 100-115 mgVeal (4 oz., cooked) 145 mgPoultry (4 oz., cooked) 90-110 mgDried beans and peas 0 mgAll vegetables and fruits 0 mgMargarine (1 tablespoon, all veg. oil) 0 mgSkim milk (1 cup) 5 mgCottage cheese, dry curd (1/2 cup) 6 mg*Some egg substitutes do contain cholesterol. Check the label tobe sure!3. Select lean cuts of meat.4. Serve moderate portion sizes.5. Replace animal fats with appropriate substitutes.Remember, cholesterol is found only in animal products. Plantfoods (fruits, vegetables, and grains) have no cholesterol unlessanimal fats are added in preparation or seasoning. in questions and answersAim: to practise the language of presenting personal opinionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:T- How much do you know about anemia? Let’s find out…pairs – cover the text - look at a question (one at a time) + predict and discuss the answer – read and check-…ANEMIAWhat is anemia?Anemia is having less than the normal number of red blood cells or less hemoglobin than normal in the blood.How is anemia detected?Anemia is usually detected or at least confirmed by a complete blood cell (CBC) count. What is a complete blood cell (CBC) count?In a CBC test, the different types of cells in the blood are counted and examined. Today, much of this work is often automated and done by machine. Six tests make up a CBC: Red blood cell (RBC) count Hematocrit Hemoglobin White blood cell (WBC) count Differential blood count (the "diff") Platelet countOnly the first three of these tests: the red blood cell (RBC) count, the hematocrit, and the hemoglobin, are relevant to the diagnosis of anemia.What is the red blood cell (RBC) count?The red blood cells (RBCs) are the most common type of cells in the blood. Everyone has millions and millions of these little disc-shaped cells. The RBC count is done to determine if the number of red blood cells is low (anemia) or high (polycythemia). In an RBC count, the number and size of the RBCs are determined. The shape of the red blood cells is also evaluated under a microscope. All of this information, the number, size and shape of the RBCs, is useful in the diagnosis of anemia and, if there is anemia, in the decision about the exact type of anemia. What is the hematocrit?The hematocrit is a very convenient way to determine whether the red blood cell count is too high, too low, or normal. The hematocrit is specifically a measure of how much of the blood is made of red cells. How is an hematocrit done?The hematocrit is often done by pricking the finger and drawing a drop of blood up into a thin glass tube. Another way is to draw a tube of blood from the arm. The RBCs in the sample of blood are packed down by spinning the tube in a centrifuge under prescribed conditions. The proportion of the tube that consists of RBCs is then measured. Let's say that it is 45%. The hematocrit is 45. What is hemoglobin?Hemoglobin is a red pigment; it imparts the familiar red color to red blood cells and to blood. Functionally, hemoglobin is the key chemical compound that combines with oxygen from the lungs and carries the oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Oxygen is essential for cells to produce energy. The blood also transports carbon dioxide, which is the waste product of this energy production process, back to the lungs from which it is exhaled into the air. What does a low hemoglobin level mean?People with a low hemoglobin level have anemia. When there is a low hemoglobin level, there is often a low red blood cell count and a low hematocrit, too.What is the consequence of anemia?Oxygen transport through the body is subnormal. The person with anemia in underoxygenated. What are the symptoms of anemia?People with anemia can feel tired, fatigue easily, appear pale, develop palpitations, and become short of breath.What is the cause of anemia?There is no one cause of anemia. Can not enough iron be the problem?Women are more likely than men to have anemia because of the loss of blood each month through menstruation. Iron deficiency anemia is common. In adults, iron deficiency anemia is most often due to chronic blood loss. This can be from menstruation or from small amounts of repeated bleeding (which can be very subtle) due, for instance, to colon cancer. Anemia can also be due to gastrointestinal bleeding caused by medications including such very common drugs as aspirin and ibuprofen (ADVIL, MOTRIN). In infants and young children, iron deficiency anemia is most often due to a diet lacking iron. How about acute (sudden) blood loss as a cause of anemia? Acute blood loss from internal bleeding (as from a bleeding ulcer) or external bleeding (as from trauma) can produce anemia in an amazingly short span of time. Can anemia be in your genes?The answer is clearly and emphatically "yes!" Hereditary disorders can shorten the lifespan of the RBC and lead to anemia, as in sickle cell anemia. Hereditary disorders can also cause anemia by impairing the production of hemoglobin, as in the alpha thalassemia and beta thalassemia. What are the other causes of anemia?Vitamin B12 is involved in pernicious anemia. Folate deficiency can be the culprit and be the basis of anemia. There can be rupture of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia) due to antibodies clinging to the surface of the red cells, as in hemolytic disease of the newborn and in many other conditions. A wide assortment of bone marrow diseases can cause anemia. For example, cancers that spread (metastasize) to the bone marrow, or cancers of the bone marrow (such as leukemia or multiple myeloma) can cause the bone marrow to inadequately produce red blood cells, resulting in anemia. Certain chemotherapy for cancers can also cause damage to the bone marrow and decrease red blood cell production, resulting in anemia. Finally, patients with kidney failure may lack the hormone necessary to stimulate normal red blood cell production by the bone marrow. The list of causes of anemia, if not endless, is very long, too long to detail here.How is anemia treated?The treatment of the anemia varies greatly. Firstly, the underlying cause of the anemia should be corrected. For example, anemia as a result of blood loss from a stomach ulcer should begin with medications to heal the ulcer. Likewise, surgery is often necessary to remove a colon cancer that is causing chronic blood loss and anemia. Sometimes iron supplements will also be needed to correct iron deficiency. Sometimes blood transfusions are necessary. Vitamin B12 injections will be necessary for patients suffering from pernicious anemia or other causes of B12 deficiency. In certain patients with bone marrow disease (or bone marrow damage from chemotherapy) or patients with kidney failure, epoetin alfa (Procrit, Epogen) may be used to stimulate bone marrow red blood cell production. What is the outlook prognosis with anemia?The prognosis with anemia also varies greatly. Sometimes it can be easily cured. Sometimes not. Again, it all depends upon the exact cause of the anemia.Source: Extra linkBlood donation: UNIT 5: Gastrointestinal System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Poslech: Body Weight and Diet. Gramatika: Podmínkové věty I.The way of food – hamburger story – linking words – WRITINGAim: to practise the language sequencingto practise topic-related vocabularyto practise the use of linking words (both in speaking and writing)Stages&tasks&instructions:- Ss in pairs tell a story of a hamburger passing through the GI system- class check – by a chain story- writing the story – lead into by the following 4 steps:1 linking words – T dictates linking words from the chart (or a cloud on the screen) – Ss divide them into categories (contrastive fce etc) picture3 pairs – parts of the system, verbs, processes, productspancreas rectum duodenum sigmoid colon mouth appendix liver ileum descending colon cecum gall bladder anus stomach transverse colon jejunum ascending colon esophagusverbs, processes, products are collected from Ss when T monitors + elicited4 write a storyYour digestive system consists of organs that break down food into components that your body uses for energy and for building and repairing cells and tissues. Food passes in the oral cavity and your tongue helps it to go down the throat or oropharynx, down through a muscular tube called the oesophagus, and into the stomach, where food continues to be broken down. The partially digested food passes into a short tube called the duodenum (first part of the small intestine). The jejunum and ileum are also part of the small intestine. The liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas produce enzymes and substances that help with digestion in the small intestine. The last section of the digestive tract is the large intestine, which includes the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The appendix is a branch of the large intestine; it has no known function. Indigestible remains of food are expelled through the anal canal and the anus. Key vocabulary: carbohydrates / proteins / fatAim: to practise the language of discussionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:pairs/groups – make notes in what way can diet influence weight (use the words above)compare your tips with another groupdiscuss the tips from a diet guide – Do you agree (A) or disagree (D)? + Why?class feedbackHOW TO LOSE WEIGHT SUSTAINABLY Above all, body weight is a result of energy balance. Losing weight simply means taking in fewer calories than you spend. There's no diet, no trick, no magic around that.The input side: 1.????? Resolve to eat a little less than you need for a long time. Most people are ill-served by rigorous short-term diets. They punish themselves for a few weeks, longing for the day it's finally over and setting themselves up to yo-yo back.2.????? Hold yourself accountable. Make a long-term plan. One pound (0.5 kg) a month is reasonable.3.????? Accept being a little hungry part of the day. As long as you take up calories from a meal, insulin predominates and part of these calories are converted to fat. Once the process reverses, glucagon predominates, and you get hungry again. Hunger is the signal to Paleolithic WoMan to go foraging again: first the exercise, then the next meal. As long as you are hungry, you burn fat. People who claim you can lose weight without being hungry usually are after your money.4.????? Have breakfast, have lunch. It's not necessary to skip a meal, but if you want to, skip dinner. Don't eat too much in between. You don't want insulin to be active all day.5.????? Drink water and tea. Forgo soft drinks and cut back on alcohol. Both contain plenty of "empty calories". Soft drinks contain lots of carbohydrates: fructose, glucose, sucrose. Alcohol is metabolized to acetyl-CoA and reductive equivalents: the building blocks for fatty acid synthesis. By drinking alcohol, we synthesize fat instead of burning it.6.????? Cook-it-yourself: this gives you more control over what you eat.7.????? Serve smaller portions, use smaller plates to counter the portion-size effect.8.????? Eat unprocessed foods: fruit, vegetables, legumes, salads, lean meat, fish. Processed foods tend to be more energy-dense, i. e., contain too much fat and simple sugars. Plus, they frequently contain too much salt, trans-fats and other ingredients you are not aware of.9.????? Eat protein-rich foods. By stimulating PYY, a protein-rich meal helps to delay the return of hunger compared to isocaloric alternatives. Protein-rich foods include lean meat, fish, and eggs. Vegetarians can resort to tofu, seeds (pumpkin, sunflower) and nuts.10.? Prefer low glycemic index foods. This matches well with the previous two points: unprocessed and protein rich foods tend to have a lower glycemic index. Cut down on sweets, sugar, chocolate, pastries. For breakfast, replace processed cereals or white bread with whole-grain musli containing fresh fruits. to grammar presentation - Role play Aim: to practise the use of 1st conditionalto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:warning a disobedient obese patient who acts in non-complience – using 1st conditionalExtra link Calories checker: UNIT 6: Respiratory System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Poslech: Dyspnea. Téma: Types of Medication.Gapfill Aim: to practise the examination open-cloze type of exerciseto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:aimed at respiratory system key words Fill in the gaps with the names of the primary respiratory organs and activities. Respiratory System: Oxygen Delivery SystemThe primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through __________. When we __________, we __________ oxygen and __________ carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is the respiratory system's means of getting oxygen to the blood.Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the __________ and the __________. The oxygen then passes through the __________ (where speech sounds are produced) and the __________ which is a tube that enters the chest cavity where it splits into two smaller tubes called the __________. Each __________ then divides again forming the __________ __________ which lead directly into the __________ where they divide into many smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called __________. The average adult has about 600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by __________. The inhaled oxygen passes into the sacs and then diffuses through into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the sacs. The carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the __________ when you exhale.The __________ is a sheet of muscles that lies across the bottom of the chest cavity. It helps to pump the carbon dioxide out and pull the oxygen in. When it __________, oxygen is pulled in. When the diaphragm __________, carbon dioxide is pumped out.Respiratory System: Oxygen Delivery SystemThe primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is the respiratory system's means of getting oxygen to the blood.Respiration is achieved through the mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm. Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose. The oxygen then passes through the larynx (where speech sounds are produced) and the trachea which is a tube that enters the chest cavity. In the chest cavity, the trachea splits into two smaller tubes called the bronchi. Each bronchus then divides again forming the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where they divide into many smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli. The average adult's lungs contain about 600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The inhaled oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the lungs when you exhale.The diaphragm's job is to help pump the carbon dioxide out of the lungs and pull the oxygen into the lungs. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscles that lies across the bottom of the chest cavity. As the diaphragm contracts and relaxes, breathing takes place. When the diaphragm contracts, oxygen is pulled into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, carbon dioxide is pumped out of the lungs. to quit smoking - listening- 0.45-3.18Aim: to practise the language of presenting personal opinionto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:T-Ss - Prediction – what can help smokers stop smoking?1st listening - make a list of the strategies the expert describes – pair check2nd listening – listen for the detailed information on how these startegies work and how to get them + pair check class check: MIDTERM TESTQuizAim: to revise topic-related vocabularyto practise the language of discussion for the examination – Part 3Stages&tasks&instructions:individually pair check (discuss and give arguments) class checkMEDICAL QUIZTrue or False? Tick the right statements and correct the wrong ones. Tissues are the fundamental units of life. Integumentary system deals with internal organs of the human body. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial, spinal, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. The synonym of cranial cavity is inferior. Gullet is situated in the thoracic cavity. The inside of the bone is called periosteum. The process of forming new red blood cells is called hematopoesis. There is over 200 bones in the human body. The vertebral column can be subdivided into four parts. Patella is the synonym for knee-cap. Scoliosis is lateral curvature of the spine. There are four chambers in the heart. The contraction phase of the heart is called diastole. Veins carry blood from the heart to the body organs. Lesser blood circulation involves the whole body. The sac enclosing the heart is called epicardium. Plasma is a liquid portion of blood without fibrinogen. Lymph arises from the blood plasma. There are two meanings for the abbreviation RBC. A person has got 36 teeth. The top layer of a tooth is called dentine. Small intestine consists of three parts. Bile is produced in the gall bladder. Appendicitis is an incision of the appendix. The nasal cavity is followed by the larynx. Bronchioles are the smallest part of the lungs. 8.?t?den: UNIT 7: Integumentary System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Poslech: Skin Lightening. Gramatika: Podmínkové věty II. Our skin and vitaminsAim: to practise the language of discussion for the examination – Part 3to practise topic-related vocabularyto pracise free speakingStages&tasks&instructions:Qs - Which vitamins are important for our skin?, How to get vitamin D3 (sun, supplements, food?) make a list of food high in vitamine D3watch and check + class discussion of pros and consin pairs prepare a script for the video (i.e. missing commentary)watch and add your commentary to the video (‘silent viewing’)Cod liver oil, fish, fortified cereals, oysters, salami, ham and sausages, fortified dairy products, eggs, mushrooms skin and vitamins - check with the expertsAim: to practise reading skillsto practise topic-related vocabularyto practise speakingStages&tasks&instructions:Ss in pairs read a text eachSs retell the text to each otherOptimal Skin Protection with Vitamin DBy Gary Goldfaden, MD and Robert GoldfadenBy Gary Goldfaden, MD and Robert Goldfaden People today are aware of the importance of maintaining optimal blood levels of vitamin D for their overall health and well being. What many people do not know is that vitamin D is also indispensable to the health, beauty, and longevity of the largest organ in the body: your skin. The problem is that while the body uses sunlight to make vitamin D, sun exposure itself accelerates skin aging. Over time, ultraviolet light damages the skin, leading to wrinkles, sun spots, and higher risk of skin cancer. In addition, much of the vitamin D produced in the skin is taken up and used by other systems of the body.In this article, you will discover the critical role vitamin D plays in skin cell development and repair, as well as how it mobilizes your skin’s immune system and helps destroy free radicals that can cause premature aging. You will also learn how topical vitamin D lotion can deliver benefits directly to your skin, preserving its softness, health, and youthful appearance.Shedding Light on Vitamin D’s True IdentityTechnically, vitamin D doesn’t fit the classic definition of a vitamin at all. A vitamin is a substance that is crucial to normal everyday life function, but can’t be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and thus must be obtained from the diet.1 Your skin has the ability to manufacture as much as 10,000 IU of vitamin D after 20–30 minutes of summer sun exposure.2 But there are many limiting factors to internal vitamin D synthesis that include age, skin color, geographic latitude, seasonal variation in sunlight availability, and the widespread (but necessary) use of sunscreen, which all make it difficult for your body to produce the vitamin D it needs for optimal health through sun exposure alone. Too much sun damages the skin, creating wrinkles and fine lines, while increasing skin cancer risk. Still, your skin’s ability to synthesize a portion of its daily requirement directly from sunlight3 makes vitamin D unique among all other nutrients.Functionally speaking, vitamin D more closely resembles a hormone than a vitamin.4,5 Hormones are chemical messengers produced by certain glands and cells in your body that bind to specific receptors in order to produce a targeted biological response. The active form of vitamin D, calcitriol, is one of the most powerful hormones in the human body, endowed with the ability to activate over 2,000 genes (roughly 10% of the human genome).2 In order to become calcitriol, however, vitamin D must first undergo a complex series of biochemical reactions that begin in your epidermis, the outermost layer of your skin and the key to its youthful appearance. The Key Nutrient for Skin Cell Growth and ReplacementBeing fat-soluble, vitamin D as calcitriol easily crosses the phospholipid membranes of your cells and migrates to the nucleus. Here it binds with vitamin D receptors,6 a special group of proteins that sense the presence of steroid hormones. This linking regulates the expression of genes that turn different cell functions on or off.7,8 Vitamin D receptors are directly involved in cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as optimal immune function. These issues are vitally important to your skin, which not only serves as your first line of defense against pathological invaders, but must also replace approximately 30-40,000 lost cells a minute.9This constant loss of cells on your skin’s surface must be offset naturally by an ongoing vitamin D- dependent renewal process that takes place in specialized cells called keratinocytes. Keratinocytes account for about 95% of all cells in your epidermis.10 They possess two properties which make them extremely valuable—the ability to actively divide, and the ability to differentiate. They are continuously providing new cells for replenishment of your skin’s surface. Cell activity in this layer is responsible for the creation of an underlying structural framework for your skin to reinforce the delicate matrix of skin tissue. This helps your epidermis form a watertight barrier that locks in moisture and keeps your skin soft and supple. This is where vitamin D comes in: rates of cell division and differentiation are triggered by growth factors and other molecules that are controlled by the presence of vitamin D.11-13 If adequate amounts of vitamin D are not available, your epidermal cells won’t differentiate optimally. As a result, the outer layer of your skin may become thinner and more fragile. It begins to sag from lack of adequate support. Dryness and wrinkles set in as moisture is gradually lost to the outside.14 This is one of the main reasons why vitamin D is absolutely essential to the maintenance of healthy-looking skin.: UNIT 8: Genito-Urinary System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Poslech: STDs. Gramatika: Podmínkové věty III.Gapfill Aim: to practise the examination open-cloze type of exercise (aimed at parts of speech Ss tend not to concentrate on in tests Stages&tasks&instructions:Complete each blank with one word. Use as many different parts of speech (pronouns, quantifiers, modal verbs, prepositions etc) as possible & use as few nouns and main verbs as possible! How does the urinary system work?Your body takes nutrients from food and uses __________ to maintain all bodily functions including energy and self-repair. After your body has taken what it needs from the food, waste products __________ left behind in the blood and in the bowel. The urinary system works with the lungs, skin, and intestines—all of __________ also excrete wastes—to keep the chemicals and water in your body balanced. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half of urine each day. The amount depends __________ many factors, especially the amounts of fluid and food a person consumes and how __________ fluid is lost through sweat and breathing. Certain types of medications __________ also affect the amount of urine eliminated.The urinary system removes a type of waste called urea from your blood. Urea is produced __________ foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken __________ in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys.The kidneys are bean-shaped organs about the __________ of your fists. They are near the middle of the back, __________ below the rib cage. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, __________ with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes __________ the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. The ureters are __________ 8 to 10 inches long. Muscles in the ureter walls constantly tighten and relax to force urine downward away from the kidneys. __________ urine is allowed to stand still, or back up, a kidney infection can develop. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 __________ 15 seconds.The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped __________ a balloon. It sits in your pelvis and is held in place by ligaments attached to __________ organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder stores urine __________ you are ready to go to the bathroom __________ empty it. It swells into a round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty. If the urinary system is healthy, the bladder can hold __________ to 16 ounces (2 cups) of urine comfortably __________ 2 to 5 hours.Circular muscles called sphincters help keep urine from leaking. __________ sphincter muscles close tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder into the urethra, the tube __________ allows urine to pass outside the body.Nerves in the bladder tell you when it is time to urinate, or empty your bladder. As the bladder first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to urinate. The sensation to urinate becomes stronger as the bladder continues to fill and reaches __________ limit. __________ that point, nerves from the bladder send a message to the brain that the bladder is full, and __________ urge to empty your bladder intensifies.When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, squeezing urine __________of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax. __________ these muscles relax, urine exits the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs. Diet in pregnancy / when suffering from kidney stones etc. Aim: to practise speaking (role play) using 1st, 2nd, 3rd, mixed conditional sentencesto practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:read a text for pregnant women/people suffering form kidney stones to get essential background infoprepare a diet plantalk to a worried patientswap roles (if time)Za?átek formulá?ePregnancy diet: Focus on these essential nutrientsA healthy pregnancy diet will promote your baby's growth and development. Understand which nutrients you need most and where to find them. There's no magic formula for a healthy pregnancy diet. In fact, during pregnancy the basic principles of healthy eating remain the same — get plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean protein. However, a few nutrients in a pregnancy diet deserve special attention. Here's what tops the list. Folate is a B vitamin that helps prevent neural tube defects, serious abnormalities of the brain and spinal cord. Lack of folate in a pregnancy diet may also increase the risk of low birth weight and preterm delivery. The synthetic form of folate found in supplements and fortified foods is known as folic acid. How much you need: 800 micrograms of folate or folic acid a day before conception and throughout pregnancy. Good sources: Fortified cereals are great sources of folic acid. Leafy green vegetables, citrus fruits, and dried beans and peas are good sources of naturally occurring folate. FoodServing sizeFolic acid contentCereal3/4 cup (15 to 45 grams) 100 percent fortified ready-to-eat cereal100 to 700 micrograms — choose a cereal with at least 400 microgramsSpinach1/2 cup (90 grams) boiled spinach131 microgramsBeans1/2 cup (88 grams) boiled Great Northern beans90 microgramsAsparagus4 boiled spears (60 grams)89 microgramsPeanuts1 ounce (28 grams) dry roasted41 microgramsOranges1 orange (159 grams)48 microgramsSource: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 In addition to making healthy food choices, taking a daily prenatal vitamin — ideally starting three months before conception — can help ensure you're getting enough of this essential nutrient. You and your baby need calcium for strong bones and teeth. Calcium also helps your circulatory, muscular and nervous systems run normally. How much you need: 1,000 milligrams a day. Pregnant teenagers need 1,300 milligrams a day. Good sources: Dairy products are the richest sources of calcium. Many fruit juices and breakfast cereals are fortified with calcium, too. FoodServing sizeCalcium contentJuice8 ounces (237 milliliters) calcium-fortified orange juice500 milligramsMilk1 cup (237 milliliters) skim milk299 milligramsYogurt6 ounces (170 grams) low-fat fruit yogurt258 milligramsCheese1 ounce (28 grams) part-skim mozzarella cheese222 milligramsSalmon3 ounces (85 grams) canned pink salmon with bones181 milligramsSpinach1/2 cup (90 grams) boiled spinach122 milligramsCereal1 cup (20 to 60 grams) calcium-fortified ready-to-eat cereal3 to 1,000 milligramsSource: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 Vitamin D also helps build your baby's bones and teeth. How much you need: 600 IU a day. Good sources: Fatty fish, such as salmon and tuna, are great sources of vitamin D. Other options include fortified milk and orange juice. FoodServing sizeVitamin D contentFish3 ounces (85 grams) cooked sockeye salmon447 IUJuice8 ounces (237 milliliters) calcium- and vitamin D-fortified orange juice137 IUMilk1 cup (237 milliliters) skim milk115 IUAsparagus4 boiled spears (60 grams)89 microgramsEggs1 large hard-boiled egg (50 grams)44 IUSource: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 Protein is crucial for your baby's growth, especially during the second and third trimesters. How much you need: 71 grams a day. Good sources: Lean meat, poultry, fish and eggs are great sources of protein. Other options include dried beans and peas, tofu, dairy products and peanut butter. FoodServing sizeProtein contentCottage cheese1 cup (226 grams) low-fat, 1% milk cottage cheese28 gramsPoultry1/2 (86 grams) boneless, skinless roasted chicken breast26.7 gramsFish3 ounces (85 grams) canned pink salmon with bones16.8 gramsLentils1/2 cup (99 grams) boiled lentils8.9 gramsMilk1 cup (237 milliliters) skim milk8.3 gramsPeanut butter2 tablespoons (32 grams) smooth, vitamin- and mineral-fortified peanut butter8.2 gramsEggs1 large hard-boiled egg (50 grams)6.3 gramsSource: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 Your body uses iron to make hemoglobin, a protein in the red blood cells that carries oxygen to your tissues. During pregnancy your blood volume expands to accommodate changes in your body and help your baby make his or her entire blood supply — doubling your need for iron. If you don't get enough iron, you may become fatigued and more susceptible to infections. The risk of preterm delivery and low birth weight also may be higher. How much you need: 27 milligrams a day. Good sources: Lean red meat, poultry and fish are good sources of iron. Other options include iron-fortified breakfast cereals, nuts and dried fruit. FoodServing sizeIron contentCereal3/4 cup (15 to 45 grams) 100 percent iron-fortified ready-to-eat cereal18 milligramsBeans1 cup (177 grams) boiled kidney beans3.9 milligramsSpinach1/2 cup (90 grams) boiled spinach3.2 milligramsMeat3 ounces (85 grams) roasted lean beef tenderloin2.6 milligramsPoultry1/2 cup (70 grams) roasted dark turkey1.6 milligramsSource: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 Prenatal vitamins typically contain iron. In some cases, your health care provider might recommend a separate iron supplement. The iron from animal products, such as meat, is most easily absorbed. To enhance the absorption of iron from plant sources and supplements, pair them with a food or drink high in vitamin C — such as orange juice, tomato juice or strawberries. If you take iron supplements with orange juice, avoid the calcium-fortified variety. Although calcium is an essential nutrient during pregnancy, calcium can decrease iron absorption. Even if you eat a healthy diet, you can miss out on key nutrients. Taking a daily prenatal vitamin — ideally starting three months before conception — can help fill any gaps. Your health care provider might recommend special supplements if you follow a strict vegetarian diet or have a chronic health condition. If you're considering taking an herbal supplement during pregnancy, consult your health care provider first. Original article: stonesPreventionPrevention of kidney stones may include a combination of lifestyle changes and medications.Lifestyle changesYou may reduce your risk of kidney stones if you:Drink water throughout the day. For people with a history of kidney stones, doctors usually recommend passing about 2.6 quarts (2.5 liters) of urine a day. Your doctor may ask that you measure your urine output to make sure that you're drinking enough water. If you live in a hot, dry climate or you exercise frequently, you may need to drink even more water to produce enough urine. If your urine is light and clear, you're likely drinking enough water.Eat fewer oxalate-rich foods. If you tend to form calcium oxalate stones, your doctor may recommend restricting foods rich in oxalates. These include rhubarb, beets, okra, spinach, Swiss chard, sweet potatoes, nuts, tea, chocolate and soy products.Choose a diet low in salt and animal protein. Reduce the amount of salt you eat and choose nonanimal protein sources, such as legumes.Continue eating calcium-rich foods, but use caution with calcium supplements. Calcium in food doesn't have an effect on your risk of kidney stones. Continue eating calcium-rich foods unless your doctor advises otherwise. Ask your doctor before taking calcium supplements, as these have been linked to increased risk of kidney stones. You may reduce the risk by taking supplements with meals.Ask your doctor for a referral to a dietitian who can help you develop an eating plan that reduces your risk of kidney stones. formulá?e10.?t?den: UNIT 9: Endocrine System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Poslech: Diabetes. Gramatika: Questions I.Diagnosis of Diabetes and PrediabetesAim: to practise speaking skills under test conditions (strict timing)to practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:1 card/pair of Ss – read+rememberSs stand in 2 lines/teams facing each other1st member of one of the teams moves to the back of it + all Ss retell the infonext member of the same team moves + all Ss retell the info (this repeats until the 1st member meets their original partner + the time limit for sharing information is gradually shortened)Follow-up – group competitionT asks the same Qs – a Q is asked repeatedly till the groups run out of answers, i.e. a point goes to the other groupWhat is diabetes and what it may lead to?Diabetes is a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes. People with diabetes have high blood glucose, also called high blood sugar or hyperglycemia.Diabetes is a disorder of metabolism—the way the body uses digested food for energy. The digestive tract breaks down carbohydrates—sugars and starches found in many foods—into glucose, a form of sugar that enters the bloodstream. With the help of the hormone insulin, cells throughout the body absorb glucose and use it for energy. Insulin is made in the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. As the blood glucose level rises after a meal, the pancreas is triggered to release insulin. Within the pancreas, clusters of cells called islets contain beta cells, which make the insulin and release it into the blood.Diabetes develops when the body doesn’t make enough insulin or is not able to use insulin effectively, or both. As a result, glucose builds up in the blood instead of being absorbed by cells in the body. The body’s cells are then starved of energy despite high blood glucose levels.Over time, high blood glucose damages nerves and blood vessels, leading to complications such as heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, blindness, dental disease, and amputations. Other complications of diabetes may include increased susceptibility to other diseases, loss of mobility with aging, depression, and pregnancy problems.Type 1 diabetes, formerly called juvenile diabetes, is usually first diagnosed in children, teenagers, and young adults. In this type of diabetes, the beta cells of the pancreas no longer make insulin because the body’s immune system has attacked and destroyed them.Type 2 diabetes, formerly called adult-onset diabetes, is the most common type of diabetes. About 90 to 95 percent of people with diabetes have type 2.1 People can develop type 2 diabetes at any age, even during childhood, but this type of diabetes is most often associated with older age. Type 2 diabetes is also associated with excess weight, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, previous history of gestational diabetes, and certain ethnicities.Type 2 diabetes usually begins with insulin resistance, a condition linked to excess weight in which muscle, liver, and fat cells do not use insulin properly. As a result, the body needs more insulin to help glucose enter cells to be used for energy. At first, the pancreas keeps up with the added demand by producing more insulin. But in time, the pancreas loses its ability to produce enough insulin in response to meals, and blood glucose levels rise.Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that develops only during pregnancy.The hormones produced during pregnancy increase the amount of insulin needed to control blood glucose levels. If the body can’t meet this increased need for insulin, women can develop gestational diabetes during the late stages of pregnancy.Gestational diabetes usually goes away after the baby is born. Shortly after pregnancy, 5 to 10 percent of women with gestational diabetes continue to have high blood glucose levels and are diagnosed as having diabetes, usually type 2.1 Research has shown that lifestyle changes and the diabetes medication, metformin, can reduce or delay the risk of type 2 diabetes in these women. Babies born to mothers who had gestational diabetes are also more likely to develop obesity and type 2 diabetes as they grow up.What is prediabetes?Prediabetes is when blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes. Prediabetes means a person is at increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes, as well as for heart disease and stroke. Many people with prediabetes develop type 2 diabetes within 10 years.However, modest weight loss and moderate physical activity can help people with prediabetes delay or prevent type 2 diabetes.How are diabetes and prediabetes diagnosed?Blood tests are used to diagnosis diabetes and prediabetes because early in the disease type 2 diabetes may have no symptoms. All diabetes blood tests involve drawing blood at a health care provider’s office or commercial facility and sending the sample to a lab for analysis. Lab analysis of blood is needed to ensure test results are accurate. Glucose measuring devices used in a health care provider’s office, such as finger-stick devices, are not accurate enough for diagnosis but may be used as a quick indicator of high blood glucose.Testing enables health care providers to find and treat diabetes before complications occur and to find and treat prediabetes, which can delay or prevent type 2 diabetes from developing.Any one of the following tests can be used for diagnosis:*an A1C test, also called the hemoglobin A1c, HbA1c, or glycohemoglobin testa fasting plasma glucose (FPG) testan oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)Symptoms of diabetes includeincreased urinationincreased thirstunexplained weight lossOther symptoms can include fatigue, blurred vision, increased hunger, and sores that do not heal.Any test used to diagnose diabetes requires confirmation with a second measurement unless clear symptoms of diabetes exist.What needs to be monitored in diabetes?In addition to weight, the location of excess fat on the body can be important. A waist measurement of 40 inches or more for men and 35 inches or more for women is linked to insulin resistance and increases a person’s risk for type 2 diabetes. This is true even if a person’s body mass index (BMI) falls within the normal range.If results of testing are normal, testing should be repeated at least every 3 years. Health care providers may recommend more frequent testing depending on initial results and risk status. People whose test results indicate they have prediabetes may be tested again in 1 year and should take steps to prevent or delay type 2 diabetes.What steps can delay or prevent type 2 diabetes?A major research study, the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), proved that people with prediabetes were able to sharply reduce their risk of developing diabetes during the study by losing 5 to 7 percent of their body weight through dietary changes and increased physical activity.Study participants followed a low-fat, low-calorie diet and engaged in regular physical activity, such as walking briskly five times a week for 30 minutes. These strategies worked well for both men and women in all racial and ethnic groups, but were especially effective for participants age 60 and older. A follow-up study, the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study (DPPOS), showed losing weight and being physically active provide lasting results. Ten years after the DPP, modest weight loss delayed onset of type 2 diabetes by an average of 4 years.Adapted from: link administration – listening- COURSEBOOK (Cambridge English for Nursing Intermediate – CD - track 4.4)Aim: to practise listening skills (listening for gist, listening for detail)to practise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:class prediction – What types of insulin administration do you know?listen and check + T elicits on the boardlisten for pros and cons – pair checkclass FB + personal choice – Which one would you choose if you suffered from diabetes? Why?11.?t?den: UNIT 10: Nervous System – Anatomy and Pathologies. Gramatika: Questions II. Poslech: Alzheimer’s DiseaseVocab cardsAim: to practise topic-related vocabularyto practise definition formationStages&tasks&instructions:- Ss in pairs/groups + cards in piles turned face down - Ss take turns to define and guess parts of the nervous systemArachnoidGray matterPia materAxonGyriPonsBasal gangliaHypothalamusReflexBrainMedulla oblongataSchwann cellCerebral cortexMeningesSpinal cordCerebrumMidbrainSynapseCorpus callosumMyelinThalamusDendritesNerveWhite matterDiencephalon / InterbrainNeurogliaDura materNeuronGanglionNode of RanvierNERVOUS SYSTEM – QUIZAim: to revise topic-related vocabularyto practise listeningStages&tasks&instructions:class competition T reads a question – show the MCQ answers on screenSs work in pairs to get points1. The nervous system is the centre of all mental activity including all the following except ________.Za?átek formulá?eA. thinkingB. learningC. digestingD. memory2. Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and _______.Za?átek formulá?eA. gangliaB. axonC. neuronsD. dura mater3. Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called ________, which occur inside and outside the body.Za?átek formulá?eA. neuronB. skinC. motorD. stimuli4. The brain and spinal cord are the organs of the ________ .Za?átek formulá?eA. CNSB. PNSC. ANSD. CSF5. There are ________ layers of meninges around the brain and spinal cord.Za?átek formulá?eA. oneB. twoC. threeD. four6. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into ________ lobes, ________ of which have the same name as the bone over them.Za?átek formulá?eA. four, threeB. three, twoC. five, twoD. five, four7. The cerebellum, ________ portion of the brain, is located below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum.Za?átek formulá?eA. the largestB. the second largestC. the third largestD. the smallest8. Like the brain, the spinal cord is surrounded by bone, meninges, and ________.Za?átek formulá?eA. cerebrospinal fluidB. white matterC. gray matterD. water9. ________ contain only afferent fibers, long dendrites of sensory neurons.Za?átek formulá?eA. Cranial nervesB. Sensory nervesC. Motor nervesD. Mixed nerves10. One of the three basic parts of a neuron is the ________.Za?átek formulá?eA. axonB. myelinC. ponsD. dura materKey: 1C 2A 3D 4A 5C 6D 7B 8A 9B 10A’s disease -signs and symptoms– videoAim: to practise listening skillsStages&tasks&instructions:- divide into two parts:Video number 2 part 1 – 0.00 – 1.311 listen and list the symptoms – How many?2 listen for details + write down the key words3 reconstruct the infoVideo number 2 part 2 –1.31 – 2.211 predict who is more prone + what are the risk factors2 listen and check3 class FB test (pdf) on screen 12.?t?den: UNIT 11: Organs of Senses – Anatomy and Pathologies. Gramatika: Object vs. Subject Questions. Poslech: Nutrition and EyesParts of the eyeAim: to practise the examination task – open clozeto practise topic-related vocabularyto practise listening&speakingStages&tasks&instructions:fill in the gapspairs – take turns to read your answers + partners checks with a key/guides you to the right answer (the keys are copied at the back of the H-O)THE RETINA The retina, the innermost _______ of the eye, is thin, delicate, sensory tissue composed of layers of light-sensitive nerve cells. The retina begins at the _______ body (not at the front of the eye) and encircles the entire interior portion of the eye. Rods and cones are the _______ of the retina. In each eye there are about 126 million rods and 6 million cones.Rods function chiefly in dim light, allowing limited night _______: it is with rods that a person sees the stars. Rods _______ detect color (that is why objects in dim light appear in shades of gray), but they are _______ first cells to detect movement. They are most abundant toward the edge of the retina and provide people with peripheral (or side) vision. Cones function best in bright light and are _______ to color. They are most abundant in the center of the retina. Scientists believe three types of cones—red, _______, and green—exist in the eye. The perception of different colors is the result of the stimulation of various combinations of these three types.THE LENSThe lens is a crystal-clear, _______, flexible body that is biconvex (curving outward on both surfaces). It is made up _______ approximately 35 percent protein and 65 percent _______. The entire surface of the lens is smooth and shiny, contains no _______ vessels, and is encased in an elastic membrane. The lens sits behind the iris and _______ light on the retina. In addition to holding the lens in place, the muscles of the ciliary body contract and _______, causing the lens to either fatten or become thin. As the shape of the lens changes, so _______ its focus.THE CHOROIDThe choroid is a thin membrane lying underneath the sclera. It is composed of a dark _______ that absorbs light within the eye (preventing glare) and numerous blood vessels that nourish the internal tissues of the eye. At the front end of the choroid is the ciliary body. Running like a ring around the visible portion of the eye, the ciliary body connects the choroid with the iris. The ciliary body contains _______ that are connected by ligaments to the lens behind the iris.The iris is the visible portion of the choroid. It gives the eye its color, which varies depending on the _______ of pigment present in the iris. Dense pigment makes the iris brown, while _______ pigment makes the iris blue. If there is no pigment the iris is pink, as in the eye of a white rabbit. The rounded opening in the center of the iris is the pupil, _______ which light passes. In bright light, muscles in the iris constrict the pupil, reducing the amount of light entering the eye. Conversely, the pupil dilates (enlarges) in dim light, increasing the amount of light entering. Extreme fear, head injuries, and certain drugs can also dilate the pupil.THE SCLERA The sclera, the outer _______ made of fibrous connective tissue, encases and _______ the eyeball. The visible portion of the sclera is seen as the "white" of the eye. When that portion is irritated, the small blood vessels contained in the layer enlarge, producing a "bloodshot eye." In the center of the visible portion of the sclera is the cornea, which projects slightly forward. The cornea is transparent and has no _______. It is the "window" or the first part of the eye through which _______ enters. A delicate mucous membrane, the conjunctiva, _______ the cornea and visible portion of the sclera. It _______ mucus to lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist. KEYTHE RETINA The retina, the innermost layer of the eye, is thin, delicate, sensory tissue composed of layers of light-sensitive nerve cells. The retina begins at the ciliary body (not at the front of the eye) and encircles the entire interior portion of the eye. Rods and cones are the photoreceptors of the retina. In each eye there are about 126 million rods and 6 million cones.Rods function chiefly in dim light, allowing limited night vision: it is with rods that a person sees the stars. Rods cannot detect color (that is why objects in dim light appear in shades of gray), but they are the first cells to detect movement. They are most abundant toward the edge of the retina and provide people with peripheral (or side) vision. Cones function best in bright light and are sensitive to color. They are most abundant in the center of the retina. Scientists believe three types of cones—red, blue, and green—exist in the eye. The perception of different colors is the result of the stimulation of various combinations of these three types.THE LENSThe lens is a crystal-clear, oval, flexible body that is biconvex (curving outward on both surfaces). It is made up of approximately 35 percent protein and 65 percent water. The entire surface of the lens is smooth and shiny, contains no blood vessels, and is encased in an elastic membrane. The lens sits behind the iris and focuses light on the retina. In addition to holding the lens in place, the muscles of the ciliary body contract and relax, causing the lens to either fatten or become thin. As the shape of the lens changes, so does its focus. KEYTHE CHOROIDThe choroid is a thin membrane lying underneath the sclera. It is composed of a dark pigment that absorbs light within the eye (preventing glare) and numerous blood vessels that nourish the internal tissues of the eye. At the front end of the choroid is the ciliary body. Running like a ring around the visible portion of the eye, the ciliary body connects the choroid with the iris. The ciliary body contains muscles that are connected by ligaments to the lens behind the iris.The iris is the visible portion of the choroid. It gives the eye its color, which varies depending on the amount of pigment present in the iris. Dense pigment makes the iris brown, while little pigment makes the iris blue. If there is no pigment the iris is pink, as in the eye of a white rabbit. The rounded opening in the center of the iris is the pupil, through which light passes. In bright light, muscles in the iris constrict the pupil, reducing the amount of light entering the eye. Conversely, the pupil dilates (enlarges) in dim light, increasing the amount of light entering. Extreme fear, head injuries, and certain drugs can also dilate the pupil.THE SCLERA The sclera, the outer layer made of fibrous connective tissue, encases and protects the eyeball. The visible portion of the sclera is seen as the "white" of the eye. When that portion is irritated, the small blood vessels contained in the layer enlarge, producing a "bloodshot eye." In the center of the visible portion of the sclera is the cornea, which projects slightly forward. The cornea is transparent and has no capillaries. It is the "window" or the first part of the eye through which light enters. A delicate mucous membrane, the conjunctiva, covers the cornea and visible portion of the sclera. It secretes mucus to lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist. slips Aim: to learn and drill topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:1 slip/1 S – remember the definitionSs mingle – teach the others your definitionSs mingle – test the others - your word x definitionAqueous humor Tissue fluid filling the cavity of the eye between the cornea and the lens. Choroid Middle, pigmented layer of the eye. Ciliary body Circular muscle that surrounds the edge of the lens of the eye and changes the shape of the lens. Cochlea Spiral-shaped cavity in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing in the organ of Corti. Cones Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that detect colors. Cornea Transparent front portion of the sclera of the eye. Conjunctiva Mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the front surface of the eyeball. Eardrum Thin membrane at the end of the outer ear that vibrates when sound waves strike it. Eustachian tube Slender air passage between the middle ear cavity and the pharynx, which equalizes air pressure on the two sides of the eardrum. External auditory canal Also called the ear canal, the tunnel in the ear between the pinna and eardrum. Iris Pigmented (colored) part of the eye between the cornea and lens made of two sets of smooth muscle fibers. Lens Clear, oval, flexible structure behind the pupil in the eye that changes shape for the focusing of light rays. Ossicles Three bones of the middle ear: hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Papillae Projections on the tongue that contain taste buds. Pinna Commonly referred to as the ear, the outer, flaplike portion of the ear. Pupil Opening in the center of the iris though which light passes. Retina Innermost layer of the eyeball that contains the photoreceptors—the rods and cones. Rods Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that detect the presence of light. ScleraOutermost layer of the eyeball, made of connective tissue. Semicircular canals Three oval canals in the inner ear that help to maintain balance. Taste buds Structures on the papillae of the tongue that contain chemoreceptors that respond to chemicals dissolved in saliva. Vitreous humor Transparent, gellike substance that fills the cavity of the eye behind the lens. AND/ORVision - listeningAim: to practise listening skillsStages&tasks&instructions:Follow-up – video 1- How our eyes worklisten for the parts of the eye listen again for the functions of the parts of the eye + pair checkwatch to check problems - video 2listen + write down the nameslisten again to check and for detailwatch to confirm info : REVISIONTHE HUMAN BODY Qs – revisions Aim: to revise topic-related vocabularyStages&tasks&instructions:2 or 4 teams – Qs on slips of paper at T’s desk (20 Qs for each team)a S runs to bring a Q back to the team which dicusses the A – the S runs back to the T to check the A, if it’s OK, they can go on … the fastest team to correctly answer all the questions wins1 What is the central part of your body called? 2 What is another name for the chest? 3 What is one of the differences between the big toe and the other toes? 4 Where in your body are your lungs? 5 Which of the five senses are connected? 6 What is the name of the substance that digests fat? 7 Why are the bones in your feet very strong? 8 When does your heart beat faster? 9 What are your lower extremities? 10 What happens to the cranial bones as you get older? 11 What substance determines the colour of your skin and hair? 12 What does your blood supply your body with? 13 How much blood does an average adult have? 14 Which is the largest organ? 15 How many bones are there in one foot? 16 What are the bones in the fingers called? 17 Why are platelets important? 18 Which organ cleans your blood: your lungs or your liver? 19 What are the two sets of layers of skin called? 20 In which region of the body are your kidneys? 21 What is the name of the little black circle in the centre of your eye? 22 How many different ‘tastes’ are there? 23 How long do red blood cells live? 24 What is the difference between the epidermis and the dermis? 25 What is haemoglobin? 26 How many facial bones are there? 27 What part of your body is the abdomen? 28 How many bones are there in your skull? 29 Where in the body would you find keratin? 30 What is flavour? 31 How many bones in the skull can move? 32 How much of your blood is made up of cells? 33 Where in the body would you find the cornea? 34 What do your white blood cells do? 35 How many knuckles in your hands do you have in total? 36 What is the name given to vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste? 37 What protects your lungs? 38 Which organ pumps blood? 39 Which is the largest internal organ?40 What is another name for the mandible?14.?t?den: CREDIT TEST ................
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