Study Guide for 9Y and 9H Biology Midterm



YHS

Study Guide for Biology Midterm

Abbreviations used: C- carbon

H- hydrogen

O- oxygen

N- nitrogen

S- sulfur

P- phosphorous

PM- Plasma membrane

Chapter 1

1. Hierarchy of Body Organization (from smallest to largest)

Atom

Molecule

Macromolecule

Organelle

Cell

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Organism

Population

Community

Ecosystem

2. Difference between deductive and inductive reasoning when an example is given

Deductive-From general to specific (using previous knowledge) to eliminate answers

Inductive- From specific to general to predict future

3. When given an example of an experiment, be able to choose between a control and a variable in that experiment

Manipulated /Independent Variable- Factor that is changed in experiment

Responding/Dependent Variable- What is measured or observed to obtain results

Control/Controlling Variable- Stays the same, provides basis for comparison

4. Parts of the scientific method

Observations/Questions- What the experimenter sees, hears, feels, smells, tastes

Hypotheses/Predictions- Prediction about experiment’s results

Experiments/Tests- See number 3

Results- Outcome of experiment either supports or does not support hypothesis

Chapter 2 and 3

5. Different states of matter

Solid- Definite volume/shape

Liquid- Definite volume but not shape

Gas- No definite volume/shape

Plasma- No definite volume/shape composed of electrically charged particles

6. Parts of an atom, atomic number/mass, isotopes

Protons- Positive charge, 1 AMU (atomic mass unit) each element has unique amount of protons

Neutrons- No charge, 1 AMU, change in neutron results in isotope

Electrons- Negative charge, 1/1836 AMU, circles nucleus @ high speeds in one of 7 energy levels (shells)

Atomic number- Number of protons

Atomic mass- Number of protons + number of neutrons

Isotope- Atom with same amount of protons but different number of neutrons

7. Ionic bonds and covalent bonds and what makes an atom happy

Ionic bond- Two oppositely charged ions attract each other through transfer of electron

Covalent bond- Atoms share 1, 2, 3 pairs of electrons

Octet rule- Atoms are stable (happy) when outermost energy level has eight electrons (is filled)

8. Cohesion and adhesion

Cohesion- Attractive force between like particles

Adhesion- Attractive force between unlike particles

9. Know the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds, hydrogen bonding

Polar covalent bond- Atoms share electrons unequally

Nonpolar covalent bond- Atoms share electrons equally

Hydrogen bonding- Water’s polarity causes molecules to be attracted to each other, weak bond

10. Characteristics of solutions, mixtures, colloids, suspensions

Mixture- Two or more substances mixed together, no chemical change (substances keep own properties)

Solutions- Homogeneous mixture (two or more substances mixed evenly throughout), won’t settle or filter out of solution

Colloid- mixture with particle size between solution and suspension, doesn’t settle out, can pass unchanged through filter paper, can be centrifuged (spun into layers)

Suspension- Heterogeneous mixture (two or more substances not evenly mixed), particles large enough to be seen by microscope or unaided eye

11. Acid, base, and neutral solution by the pH scale

Acidic- pH of less than 7, releases hydrogen ions (H+)

Basic solution- pH greater than 7, releases hydroxide ions (OH-)

Neutral solution- pH = 7, same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions

12. Dissociation of water into which ions

Water disassociates into hydrogen and hydroxide ions: H2O ( H+ + OH-

13. Dehydration synthesis, monomers and polymer

Monomer- Large carbon compound built from smaller molecules can bind to form polymers

Polymer- many monomers combined

Dehydration synthesis- reaction where monomers link to form polymers (synthesis), water is released (dehydration)

Hydrolysis- Water (hydro) breaks down (lysis) bonds of complex molecules such as polymers, opposite of dehydration synthesis

14. Exothermic and endothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction- Energy is released, product has more energy than reactants

Endothermic reaction- Energy is absorbed, reactants have more energy than product

15. Organic and inorganic substances

Organic substance- has C atoms that are covalently bonded to C, H, O, and/or N

Inorganic substance-

16. Know what makes up organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) and important facts about each-know the differences between unsaturated and saturated fats

Carbohydrates-made of C, H, O, found in form CnH2nOn (includes sugars, starches, cellulose), cells get energy from monosaccharide

Lipids- Large, nonpolar organic molecules (not true polymer) (includes fats)

Higher ratio of C/H atoms to O atoms than in carbs

Main function: energy storage

Hydrophobic

Proteins- Contains C, O, H, N, and sometimes S

Nucleic acid- Contains C, O, H, N, P

Largest biological molecules in body

Stores genetic/heredity info.(DNA, RNA)

Made of thousands of linked nucleotides

|Saturated fats |Unsaturated fats |

|No double bonds |Has double bonds |

|Flexible backbones |Less flexible backbones |

|Pack into globules |Don’t pack |

|Solid @ room temp. |Liquid @ room temp. |

|From animals |From plants |

Chapter 4

17. Magnification of a microscope

Objective lens X eyepiece/ocular = total magnification

18. Parts of the cells, their functions membrane-bound organelles

Membrane-bound organelles include- Nucleus, Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Lysosome, Peroxisome, Mitochondria, Plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus

Non-membrane-bound organelles include- flaggelum, cilia, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, centriole

Plasma membrane- protects cell (guard at the gate)

Cytoplasm- where most cellular activity takes place

Cell wall- protects cell and helps keep shape

Nucleus- control center

Ribosomes- where protein synthesis takes place, not surrounded by membrane

Lysosomes- digest food, destroy bacteria, recyle damaged organelles, have membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum- inside the cytoplasm, transport system of cells, provides surface area for chemical reations

Rough ER- Ribosomes attached, makes membranes/proteins

Smooth ER- Ribosomes not attached, makes lipids, stores calcium, processes certain materials

Golgi Apparatus- packages, processes, secretes proteins

Contractile vacuole- pumps excess water from cell

Vacuole-mostly water

Plant vacuole- Large vacuole occupies 50-90% of cell, stores water

Mitochondria- Has own DNA, power-house of cell, high-energy requirements

Centrioles- produce spindle fibers

19. Differences between plant and animal cells

| |Plant cells |Animal cells |

|Shape |Rectangle |Round |

|Cell wall |Present |Absent |

|Chlorophyll/plasts |Present |Absent |

|Vacuole |Large central vacuole |Smaller and more numerous |

|Centriole |None |Has |

Not found in plant cells- flagella, lysosomes, centriole

Not found in animal cells- central vacuole, chloroplasts, cell wall

20. Parts of the Cell Theory

a) All living things are made of cells

b) Cell is the smallest living thing that can perform all functions of life

c) All cells come from preexisting cells

21. Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

|Prokaryotic |Eukaryotic |

|Relatively small |Relatively large |

|No membranes-bound organelles |Has membrane-bound organelles |

|2 groups: Archea/Bacteria | |

Chapter 5

22. Understand the concept of selectively permeable and what makes up a plasma membrane

PM made up of- phospholipid bilayer with protein, cholestrol floating in the bilayer

-The PM controls passage of molecules from one side to other.

-The PM is semi-permeable because of phospholipid structure (one end of phospholipid is hydrophilic other is hydrophobic)

23. Diffusion, osmosis, passive transport, active transport, pinocytosis, carrier proteins

Passive transport- Cell doesn’t expend energy; used by oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, amino acids

Diffusion- Type of passive transport (no energy from cell); driven by molecules’ kinetic energy; substances move down concentration gradient (from higher to lower concentration of the substance)

Osmosis- movement of water from higher to lower concentration or from low high solute concentration

Active transport- Substances move up concentration gradient; cell expends energy

Carrier proteins- Protein uses movements of molecules to push molecule through membrane; cell doesn’t expend energy

Endocytosis- Brings substances into cell

Pinocytosis- Brings fluids/solutes from outside PM into cytoplasm

Phagocytosis- cell engulfs food/other cells

24. Hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions

Hypertonic solution- has more solute particles then the cell does; therefore water exits the cell, causing shriveling- crenation in animal cells and plasmolysis in plant cells

Hypotonic solution- has fewer solute particles then cell; water enters cell causing

In animal cells- cytolysis- bursting

In plant cells- the cell to push against the cell wall

Isotonic solution- solute concentration is same in and out of cell

Chapter 6 and 7

25. Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration, lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation and understand glycolysis

Aerobic respiration- requires oxygen, goes through whole process of cellular respiration (formation of acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, etc.)

Anaerobic respiration- doesn’t need oxygen, goes through glycolysis and then fermentation

Alcohol fermentation- In some yeast and bacteria, pyuvate becomes 2 alcohol (ethanol), 2 CO2, and 2 NAD+; will ultimately kill cell that produces it,

Lactic Acid fermentation- in some animal/bacteria; 2 pyruvate(2 lactic acid, 2 NAD+; accumulation causes muscle fatigue

Glycolysis- in cytoplasm; anaerobic; 6C sugar( 2 pyruvic acid/pyruvate; 2 ATP used, 4 ATP produced (net of 2 ATP), 2 NADH produced

26. Basics of photosynthesis, including what occurs during the light reactions and during the Calvin cycle

Light Reactions- converts light energy into oxygen, NADPH, and ATP; in thylakoid membrane

Calvin Cycle- After light reactions; in stroma; energy/electrons provided by ATP and NADPH from light reactions; carbon fixation bonds the C from CO2 to organic molecule, forming sugar; doesn’t need light, but is dependent on light reactions

27. Basics of cellular respiration, including products of the Krebs cycle are and how they are used in the electron transport chain (to power the formation of 34 ATP molecules)

Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis- in cytoplasm; anaerobic; 6C sugar( 2 pyruvic acid/pyruvate; 2 ATP used, 4 ATP produced (net of 2 ATP), 2 NADH produced

Formation of acetyl CoA- in the matrix; each pyruvate loses CO2, then the 2C compound joins with coenzyme A forming acetyl CoA; 2 NADH are produced

Krebs Cycle- In the matrix; for each acetyl CoA, following are produced: 2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 ATP (total of 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 ATP)

Electron Transport Chain/Chemiosmosis- electrons from NADH and FADH2 cause electrons to move down the chain eventually joining 1/2O2 and 2H+ and forming water; forms a concentration gradient causing H+ to move into intermembrane space, then move through ATP synthase, causing ADP to be phosphorylized (phosphate group attached) and to turn into ATP

| |Substrate level phosphorylation|Oxidative phosphorylation |Total ATP |

|Glycolysis |2 ATP |2 NADH (4 ATP) |6 |

|Formation of Acetyl CoA |0 |2 NADH (6 ATP) |6 |

|Krebs Cycle/Electron |2 |6 NADH (18 ATP) 2 FADH2 (4 ATP)|24 |

|Transport Chain | | | |

|Total |4 |32 |36 |

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