Study Guide for 9Y and 9H Biology Midterm
YHS
Study Guide for Biology Midterm
Abbreviations used: C- carbon
H- hydrogen
O- oxygen
N- nitrogen
S- sulfur
P- phosphorous
PM- Plasma membrane
Chapter 1
1. Hierarchy of Body Organization (from smallest to largest)
Atom
Molecule
Macromolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Population
Community
Ecosystem
2. Difference between deductive and inductive reasoning when an example is given
Deductive-From general to specific (using previous knowledge) to eliminate answers
Inductive- From specific to general to predict future
3. When given an example of an experiment, be able to choose between a control and a variable in that experiment
Manipulated /Independent Variable- Factor that is changed in experiment
Responding/Dependent Variable- What is measured or observed to obtain results
Control/Controlling Variable- Stays the same, provides basis for comparison
4. Parts of the scientific method
Observations/Questions- What the experimenter sees, hears, feels, smells, tastes
Hypotheses/Predictions- Prediction about experiment’s results
Experiments/Tests- See number 3
Results- Outcome of experiment either supports or does not support hypothesis
Chapter 2 and 3
5. Different states of matter
Solid- Definite volume/shape
Liquid- Definite volume but not shape
Gas- No definite volume/shape
Plasma- No definite volume/shape composed of electrically charged particles
6. Parts of an atom, atomic number/mass, isotopes
Protons- Positive charge, 1 AMU (atomic mass unit) each element has unique amount of protons
Neutrons- No charge, 1 AMU, change in neutron results in isotope
Electrons- Negative charge, 1/1836 AMU, circles nucleus @ high speeds in one of 7 energy levels (shells)
Atomic number- Number of protons
Atomic mass- Number of protons + number of neutrons
Isotope- Atom with same amount of protons but different number of neutrons
7. Ionic bonds and covalent bonds and what makes an atom happy
Ionic bond- Two oppositely charged ions attract each other through transfer of electron
Covalent bond- Atoms share 1, 2, 3 pairs of electrons
Octet rule- Atoms are stable (happy) when outermost energy level has eight electrons (is filled)
8. Cohesion and adhesion
Cohesion- Attractive force between like particles
Adhesion- Attractive force between unlike particles
9. Know the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds, hydrogen bonding
Polar covalent bond- Atoms share electrons unequally
Nonpolar covalent bond- Atoms share electrons equally
Hydrogen bonding- Water’s polarity causes molecules to be attracted to each other, weak bond
10. Characteristics of solutions, mixtures, colloids, suspensions
Mixture- Two or more substances mixed together, no chemical change (substances keep own properties)
Solutions- Homogeneous mixture (two or more substances mixed evenly throughout), won’t settle or filter out of solution
Colloid- mixture with particle size between solution and suspension, doesn’t settle out, can pass unchanged through filter paper, can be centrifuged (spun into layers)
Suspension- Heterogeneous mixture (two or more substances not evenly mixed), particles large enough to be seen by microscope or unaided eye
11. Acid, base, and neutral solution by the pH scale
Acidic- pH of less than 7, releases hydrogen ions (H+)
Basic solution- pH greater than 7, releases hydroxide ions (OH-)
Neutral solution- pH = 7, same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions
12. Dissociation of water into which ions
Water disassociates into hydrogen and hydroxide ions: H2O ( H+ + OH-
13. Dehydration synthesis, monomers and polymer
Monomer- Large carbon compound built from smaller molecules can bind to form polymers
Polymer- many monomers combined
Dehydration synthesis- reaction where monomers link to form polymers (synthesis), water is released (dehydration)
Hydrolysis- Water (hydro) breaks down (lysis) bonds of complex molecules such as polymers, opposite of dehydration synthesis
14. Exothermic and endothermic reaction
Exothermic reaction- Energy is released, product has more energy than reactants
Endothermic reaction- Energy is absorbed, reactants have more energy than product
15. Organic and inorganic substances
Organic substance- has C atoms that are covalently bonded to C, H, O, and/or N
Inorganic substance-
16. Know what makes up organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) and important facts about each-know the differences between unsaturated and saturated fats
Carbohydrates-made of C, H, O, found in form CnH2nOn (includes sugars, starches, cellulose), cells get energy from monosaccharide
Lipids- Large, nonpolar organic molecules (not true polymer) (includes fats)
Higher ratio of C/H atoms to O atoms than in carbs
Main function: energy storage
Hydrophobic
Proteins- Contains C, O, H, N, and sometimes S
Nucleic acid- Contains C, O, H, N, P
Largest biological molecules in body
Stores genetic/heredity info.(DNA, RNA)
Made of thousands of linked nucleotides
|Saturated fats |Unsaturated fats |
|No double bonds |Has double bonds |
|Flexible backbones |Less flexible backbones |
|Pack into globules |Don’t pack |
|Solid @ room temp. |Liquid @ room temp. |
|From animals |From plants |
Chapter 4
17. Magnification of a microscope
Objective lens X eyepiece/ocular = total magnification
18. Parts of the cells, their functions membrane-bound organelles
Membrane-bound organelles include- Nucleus, Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Lysosome, Peroxisome, Mitochondria, Plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus
Non-membrane-bound organelles include- flaggelum, cilia, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, centriole
Plasma membrane- protects cell (guard at the gate)
Cytoplasm- where most cellular activity takes place
Cell wall- protects cell and helps keep shape
Nucleus- control center
Ribosomes- where protein synthesis takes place, not surrounded by membrane
Lysosomes- digest food, destroy bacteria, recyle damaged organelles, have membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum- inside the cytoplasm, transport system of cells, provides surface area for chemical reations
Rough ER- Ribosomes attached, makes membranes/proteins
Smooth ER- Ribosomes not attached, makes lipids, stores calcium, processes certain materials
Golgi Apparatus- packages, processes, secretes proteins
Contractile vacuole- pumps excess water from cell
Vacuole-mostly water
Plant vacuole- Large vacuole occupies 50-90% of cell, stores water
Mitochondria- Has own DNA, power-house of cell, high-energy requirements
Centrioles- produce spindle fibers
19. Differences between plant and animal cells
| |Plant cells |Animal cells |
|Shape |Rectangle |Round |
|Cell wall |Present |Absent |
|Chlorophyll/plasts |Present |Absent |
|Vacuole |Large central vacuole |Smaller and more numerous |
|Centriole |None |Has |
Not found in plant cells- flagella, lysosomes, centriole
Not found in animal cells- central vacuole, chloroplasts, cell wall
20. Parts of the Cell Theory
a) All living things are made of cells
b) Cell is the smallest living thing that can perform all functions of life
c) All cells come from preexisting cells
21. Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
|Prokaryotic |Eukaryotic |
|Relatively small |Relatively large |
|No membranes-bound organelles |Has membrane-bound organelles |
|2 groups: Archea/Bacteria | |
Chapter 5
22. Understand the concept of selectively permeable and what makes up a plasma membrane
PM made up of- phospholipid bilayer with protein, cholestrol floating in the bilayer
-The PM controls passage of molecules from one side to other.
-The PM is semi-permeable because of phospholipid structure (one end of phospholipid is hydrophilic other is hydrophobic)
23. Diffusion, osmosis, passive transport, active transport, pinocytosis, carrier proteins
Passive transport- Cell doesn’t expend energy; used by oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, amino acids
Diffusion- Type of passive transport (no energy from cell); driven by molecules’ kinetic energy; substances move down concentration gradient (from higher to lower concentration of the substance)
Osmosis- movement of water from higher to lower concentration or from low high solute concentration
Active transport- Substances move up concentration gradient; cell expends energy
Carrier proteins- Protein uses movements of molecules to push molecule through membrane; cell doesn’t expend energy
Endocytosis- Brings substances into cell
Pinocytosis- Brings fluids/solutes from outside PM into cytoplasm
Phagocytosis- cell engulfs food/other cells
24. Hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions
Hypertonic solution- has more solute particles then the cell does; therefore water exits the cell, causing shriveling- crenation in animal cells and plasmolysis in plant cells
Hypotonic solution- has fewer solute particles then cell; water enters cell causing
In animal cells- cytolysis- bursting
In plant cells- the cell to push against the cell wall
Isotonic solution- solute concentration is same in and out of cell
Chapter 6 and 7
25. Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration, lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation and understand glycolysis
Aerobic respiration- requires oxygen, goes through whole process of cellular respiration (formation of acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, etc.)
Anaerobic respiration- doesn’t need oxygen, goes through glycolysis and then fermentation
Alcohol fermentation- In some yeast and bacteria, pyuvate becomes 2 alcohol (ethanol), 2 CO2, and 2 NAD+; will ultimately kill cell that produces it,
Lactic Acid fermentation- in some animal/bacteria; 2 pyruvate(2 lactic acid, 2 NAD+; accumulation causes muscle fatigue
Glycolysis- in cytoplasm; anaerobic; 6C sugar( 2 pyruvic acid/pyruvate; 2 ATP used, 4 ATP produced (net of 2 ATP), 2 NADH produced
26. Basics of photosynthesis, including what occurs during the light reactions and during the Calvin cycle
Light Reactions- converts light energy into oxygen, NADPH, and ATP; in thylakoid membrane
Calvin Cycle- After light reactions; in stroma; energy/electrons provided by ATP and NADPH from light reactions; carbon fixation bonds the C from CO2 to organic molecule, forming sugar; doesn’t need light, but is dependent on light reactions
27. Basics of cellular respiration, including products of the Krebs cycle are and how they are used in the electron transport chain (to power the formation of 34 ATP molecules)
Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis- in cytoplasm; anaerobic; 6C sugar( 2 pyruvic acid/pyruvate; 2 ATP used, 4 ATP produced (net of 2 ATP), 2 NADH produced
Formation of acetyl CoA- in the matrix; each pyruvate loses CO2, then the 2C compound joins with coenzyme A forming acetyl CoA; 2 NADH are produced
Krebs Cycle- In the matrix; for each acetyl CoA, following are produced: 2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 ATP (total of 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 ATP)
Electron Transport Chain/Chemiosmosis- electrons from NADH and FADH2 cause electrons to move down the chain eventually joining 1/2O2 and 2H+ and forming water; forms a concentration gradient causing H+ to move into intermembrane space, then move through ATP synthase, causing ADP to be phosphorylized (phosphate group attached) and to turn into ATP
| |Substrate level phosphorylation|Oxidative phosphorylation |Total ATP |
|Glycolysis |2 ATP |2 NADH (4 ATP) |6 |
|Formation of Acetyl CoA |0 |2 NADH (6 ATP) |6 |
|Krebs Cycle/Electron |2 |6 NADH (18 ATP) 2 FADH2 (4 ATP)|24 |
|Transport Chain | | | |
|Total |4 |32 |36 |
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