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AP EUROPEAN HISTORY

McKay, et. al. 11e, Chapter 16 – Study Guide

Toward a New World View (ca. 1540-1789)

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"If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants."

-Sir Isaac Newton

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the educated classes of Europe moved from a world-view that was basically religious to one that was primarily secular. The development of scientific knowledge was the key cause of this intellectual change. Until about 1500, scientific thought reflected the Aristotelian-medieval world-view, which taught that a motionless earth was at the center of a universe made up of planets and stars and ten crystal spheres. These and many other beliefs showed that science was primarily a branch of religion. Beginning with Copernicus, who taught that the earth revolved around the sun, Europeans slowly began to reject Aristotelian-medieval scientific thought. They developed a new conception of a universe based on natural laws, not with a personal God. Isaac Newton formulated the great scientific synthesis: the law of universal gravitation. This was the culminating point of the scientific revolution.

The new science was more important for intellectual development than for economic activity or everyday life, for above all it promoted critical thinking. Nothing was to be accepted on faith; everything was to be submitted to the rational, scientific way of thinking. This critical examination of everything, from religion and education to war and politics, was the program of the Enlightenment and the accomplishment of the philosophes, a group of thinkers who propagandized the new world-view across Europe and the North American colonies. These writers and thinkers, among them Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot, produced books and articles that influenced all classes and whose primary intent was teaching people how to think critically and objectively about all matters.

The philosophes were reformers, not revolutionaries. Their “enlightened” ideas were adopted by a number of monarchs who sought to promote the advancement of knowledge and improve the lives of their subjects. Most important in this group were Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia and the Habsburgs, Maria Theresa and Joseph II both of Austria. Despite some reforms, particularly in the area of law, Frederick and Catherine’s role in the Enlightenment was in the abstract rather than the practical. The Habsburgs were more successful in legal and tax reform, control of the church, and improvement of the lot of the serfs, although much of Joseph’s spectacular peasant reform was later undone. Yet reform of society from the top down, that is, by the absolute monarchs through “enlightened absolutism,” proved to be impossible because the enlightened monarchs could not ignore the demands of their conservative nobilities. In the end it was revolution, not enlightened absolutism, which changed and reformed society.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (16.1)

Before you read:

1. The theories of Copernicus were widely accepted during his lifetime.

True or False

2. The synthesis of Newton was the “Law of Universal Gravitation”. True or False

While you read:

1. Describe the “natural philosophy” of Aristotle before the Scientific Revolution.

     

2. List and describe the reasons that the Aristotelian ideas were questioned and the Scientific Revolution develops.

     

3. List and describe the development/accomplishment/advancement of each of the Scientific Revolution thinkers

Scientific Thinker Major development/advancement

|Copernicus |      |

|Brahe |      |

|Kepler |      |

|Galileo |      |

|Newton |      |

4. Describe Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and its significance.

     

After you read:

|1. |What was at the center of the Universe for the Aristotle?: |

| |God |

| |Human beings. |

| |Sun. |

| |Greeks. |

|2. |What was the reaction of Protestant leaders to the ideas of Copernicus? |

| |Didn’t really care one way or another. |

| |Condemned his teachings. |

| |Accepted and embraced the theories. |

| |Declared war on the scientists |

3. Galileo formulated the law of…

Optics

Inertia

Planetary motion

Universal Gravitation

IMPORTANT CHANGES IN SCIENTIFIC THINKING (16.2)

Before you read:

1. The Scientific Method was developed by Bacon and Descartes. True or False

2. European Exploration had no effect on the Scientific Revolution. True or False

While you read:

1. Explain how Bacon and Descartes combine to form the modern scientific method.

     

2. Identify and describe the following scientists and how they added to the study of the human body.

|Galen |      |

|Vesalius |      |

|William Harvey |      |

|Robert Boyle |      |

3. Describe how European exploration connected with the emergence of modern science.

     

4. How did modern science connect itself with society?

     

THE ENLIGHTENMENT (16.3)

Before you read:

1. All Enlightenment were in agreement on all ideas. True or False

2. The Salon was used by Enlightened thinkers for free exchange of ideas. True or False

While you read:

1. What are the three central concepts to Enlightenment thinking?

     

2. How did the Enlightenment go beyond the previous Reformation and Renaissance thinkers?

     

3. Who are the philosophes and why did their movement center in France?

     

4. How do Montesquieu and Voltaire represent Enlightenment ideas?

     

5. How did the Reading Revolution change society?

     

6. Describe the Salon and how it helped develop the Enlightenment.

     

7. Explain how the ideas of Rousseau both contributed to the Enlightenment and moved it in a different direction.

     

After you read:

1. Rococo style emphasized

Broad, beautiful landscapes

Soft colors, ornate interiors

Powerful and dynamic images

Realistic, emotional images

|2. |What did David Hume believe about race? |

| |All races were naturally inferior to the white race |

| |Scientific observation shows equality among races. |

| |The common people, no matter their race, didn’t have the ability to reason. |

| |Each culture was intrinsically valuable. |

|3. |Diderot and d’Alembert contributed what to the Enlightenment movement? |

| |Parisian Salons |

| |“Essay Concerning Human Understanding” |

| |The idea of “skepticism” |

| |They edited the “Encyclopedia” |

Living in the Past – Coffeehouse Culture (16.2)

1. What need did the Coffeehouse meet? Describe.

     

2. Are there other modern equivalents of the coffeehouse?

     

ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM (16.4)

Before you read:

1. Silesia became the battleground for Prussian expansion. True or False

2. Catherine the Great of Russia believed absolute monarchy was the best form of government.

True or False

3. Joseph II of Austria’s decree to abolish serfdom and conversion to cash payments was greeted enthusiastically by the peasants. True or False

While you read:

Identify and describe how each of these rulers cultivated Enlightened ideas into their countries and the realistic limitations they faced as well.

|Frederick the Great of |      |

|Prussia | |

|Catherine the Great of Russia|      |

|The Austrian Habsburgs (Maria|      |

|Theresa, Joseph II) | |

After you read:

|1. |What event prompted Frederick the Great to re-think his domestic policies in Prussia? |

| |Pugachev’s rebellion. |

| |“The Social Contract” being published. |

| |Founding of United States. |

| |7 Years War. |

|2. |What event stifled Catherine the Great’s domestic reforms in Russia? |

| |Pugachevs’’ rebellion. |

| |“The Social Contract” being published. |

| |Founding of United States. |

| |7 Years War. |

Listening to the Past – Denis Diderot’s “Supplement to Bougainville’s Voyage” (16.5)

1. On what grounds does the speaker argue for the Tahitians’ basic equality with the Europeans?

     

2. What is the “good life” according to the speaker? How does it differ with the European way of life?

     

3. How does Diderot’s thoughts represent Enlightenment ideas? In which ways does it not?

     

Individuals in Society- Moses Mendelssohn and the Jewish Enlightenment (16.4)

1. How did Mendelssohn seek to influence Jewish religious thought in his time?

     

2. Compare his ideas to the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

     

FREE RESPONSE ESSAY PROMPT

Write an introductory paragraph which includes an original thesis to the following prompt:

Analyze the extent to which Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria advanced and did not advance Enlightenment ideals during their reigns.

     

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Chapter Timeline

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