PHE 814 863-0112 - Pennsylvania State University



Mark T. Greenberg Ph.D.Bennett Chair of Prevention ResearchFounding Director, Prevention Research CenterCollege of Health and Human DevelopmentPHE 814 863-0112Email: mxg47@psu.eduDear Colleague:Thank you for your request for information concerning the research that we have conducted on adolescents’ perceived attachment to peers and parents. Attached is a manual providing information on our factor analyses of the scales, information on reliability of the scales, and a scoring key.Since the study reported in the 1987 paper was carried out, we have revised the IPPA. In her dissertation, Gay Armsden modified the IPPA so as to separately assess perceived quality of attachment to mothers and fathers (instead of parents together). We have enclosed a copy of this unpublished measure, The IPPA (Mother, Father, Peer Version), and a page of scoring information. In her study of over 400 college students, Gay has found that most of the same items fall on the same factors for mothers and father separately that we found in the factor analysis of parents together on the IPPA. However, there were enough differences in loadings that we judged it best to discourage the use of subscales in the revised version of the IPPA until further research could be done. Recommended scoring for this version thus involves total scores for Mother, Father, and Peer, but no subscale scores. However, while scoring subscales is not advised, we have included instructions for doing so, since many researchers have requested this information.If you have further questions, please feel free to email Mark (mxg47@psu.edu) or e-mail Gay Armsden at (g.armsden@), or write. If you decide to use our measures in data collection, please let us know. We would also appreciate a copy of papers that utilize the measure(s).Sincerely,Mark T. Greenberg, Ph.D.Gay Armsden, Ph.D.ProfessorResearch ConsultantINVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT (IPPA)AUTHORS:Gay Armsden, Ph.D.Mark T. Greenberg, Ph.D.Research ConsultantProfessorHuman DevelopmentPenn State UniversityState College, PA 16802Variables Measured:Parent and Peer Attachment (original version)Mother, Father, and Peer Attachment (revised version)Instrument Description:The IPPA was developed in order to assess adolescents’ perceptions of the positive and negative affective/cognitive dimension of relationships with their parents and close friends -- particularly how well these figures serve as sources of psychological security. The theoretical framework is attachment theory, originally formulated by Bowlby and recently expanded by others. Three broad dimensions are assessed: degree of mutual trust; quality of communication; and extent of anger and alienation. The development samples were 16 to 20 years of age; however the IPPA has been used successfully in several studies with adolescents as young as 12. The instrument is a self-report questionnaire with a five point likert-scale response format. The original version consists of 28 parents and 25 peer items, yielding two attachment scores. The revised version (Mother, Father, Peer Version) is comprised of 25 items in each of the mother, father, and peer sections, yielding three attachment scores. The IPPA is scored by reverse-scoring the negatively worded items and then summing the response values in each section.RELIABILITY:Three week test-retest reliabilities for a sample of 27 18- to 20-year-olds were .93 for parent attachment and .86 for peer attachment.For the revised version, internal reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha) are: Mother attachment, .87; Father attachment, .89; Peer attachment, .92.VALIDITY:Among late adolescents, parental attachment scores are moderately to highly related to Family and Social Self scores from the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and to most subscales on the Family Environmental Scale (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). Parent attachment scores of 12- to 18-year-olds are also moderately correlated with scores on the FACES, and with the degree of positive family coping (communication among family members and relatives concerning problems) (Lewis, Woods, & Ellison, 1987). In a sample of 10- to 16-year-old psychiatric patients, less secure parent attachment was related to clinical diagnosis of depression, parent rating of the adolescent’s depressive symptoms, and to patient’s self-reported level of depression (Armsden, McCauley, Greenberg, Burke, & Mitchell, 1991). Attachment to parents has been found to discriminate delinquents from non-delinquents among 12- to 17-year-olds (Redondo, Martin, Fernandez, & Lopez, 1986). Late adolescents experiencing more secure mother and father attachment report less conflict between their parents and experience less loneliness (Armsden, 1986).Peer attachment is positively related to social self concept as assessed by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and family expressiveness on the Family Environment Scale, and is strongly negatively correlated with loneliness. Peer attachment is modestly correlated with parent attachment as assessed by the IPPA as well as measures of general family functioning and self concept as family member (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Armsden, 1986; Lewis et al., 1987).Scores on the IPPA have also been found to be associated with a number of personality variables. Among late adolescents, parent and peer attachment are correlated with positiveness and stability of self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and affective status (depression, anxiety, resentment/alienation, covert anger, and loneliness) (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Armsden, 1986). The relationship of attachment and affective status holds even when degree of negative life-change is controlled (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). Quality of attachment to parents and to a lesser extent, peers, is associated with self-reported tendencies toward the use of more problem-solving coping strategies relative to emotion-managing efforts in stressful situations (Armsden, 1986). Among early to middle adolescents, parent attachment, and to a lesser extent, peer attachment, were found to be associated with lesser hopelessness and less externally oriented locus of control and with greater self-management (coping) skills (Armsden et al., 1987; Lewis et al., 1987).Scores on the IPPA were not found to be significantly related to socio-economic status among a sample of 400 18- to 20-year-olds. In the same study, negligible but significant positive correlations were obtained between attachment and parents’ education levels (Armsden, 1986).SUGGESTIONS IN USAGE:(1) The revised version of the IPPA (Mother, Father, Peer version) separately assesses mother and father attachment; the authors recommend its use over the original version whenever possible.REFERENCES:Armsden, G. (1986). Attachment to parents and peers in late adolescence: Relationships to affective status, self-esteem, and coping with loss, threat and challenges. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Washington, 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(4), October, 1986. Available from . Armsden, G. C., and Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment: Relationships to well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16 (5), 427-454.Armsden, G. C., McCauley, E., Greenberg, M.T.; Burke, P., and Mitchell, J. (1991). Parent and peer attachment in early adolescence depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 683-692.Greenberg, M.T., Siegal, J., & Leitch, C. (1984). The nature and importance of attachment relationships to parents and peers during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 12(5), 373-386.**ORIGINAL VERSION**INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT (IPPA)(Parent and Peer Version)SCORING INSTRUCTIONSCalculation of Total Parent and Peer Attachment ScoresSeparate Parent Attachment and Peer Attachment summary scores are obtained by reverse-scoring items as listed below. It is necessary to also reverse score all Alienation subscale items.Subscale Scoring (see Table below)The original IPPA has three Parent and Peer subscales. Subscale scores are computed by summing the item responses. Responses to negatively worded items must be reverse-scored before calculations.Directly-scored Reverse-scoredParent SubscalesItemsItemsTrust1 2 4 13 14 21 23 243 10(10 items)Communication6 8 16 17 20 26 285 7 15(10 items)Alienation(8 items)9 11 12 18 19 22 25 27- - - - Peer SubscalesTrust6 8 12 13 14 15 19 20 215(10 items)Communication1 2 3 7 16 17 24 25- - - - (8 items)Alienation(7 items)4 9 10 11 18 22 23- - - - INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT (IPPA): (Parent and Peer Version)ITEM-TOTAL CORRELATIONS* PARENT ATTACHMENT SCALES COMMUNICATIONTRUSTItem NumberItem-total correlationItem NumberItem-total5.531.766.672.697.593.618.614.7515.6310.5516.7513.7317.8014.7320.7521.7226.7723.7428.6824.64 ALIENATIONItem NumberItem-total Correlation9.5911.6012.5918.5819.5722.5725.7427.65PEER ATTACHMENT SCALES TRUST COMMUNICATIONItem NumberItem-total Item NumberItem-total5.561.576.602.638.623.5912.707.6613.7516.5714.6817.6315.7324.7219.7125.7220.6821.75 ALIENATIONItem NumberItem-total correlation4.459.2710.5111.4618.4022.44* Correlation between item scores and the total score (excluding that item)Interpretation of scoresThere are currently no norms or clinical cut-off point for scores on the IPPA. Scores must be interpreted with reference to scores from similar non-clinical or clinical samples. The IPPA manual incudes many references to published studies. The IPPA was not designed to provide general classifications of attachment “style” or “type”. However, respondents can be categorized in comparison to others in the same sample. Researchers, including the authors, have used median splits to delineate “more secure” (at or above median) versus “less secure” attachment groups for their particular samples. Vivona (2000) suggested a method of classification in which respondents with higher Alienation than Communication and Trust scores were described as “Avoidant”, while those with lower scores on Trust than Communication or Alienation were categorized as “Ambivalent”. While researchers might want to use this method, we would caution that we no longer generally recommend using the subscales.INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT:(MOTHER, FATHER AND PEER VERSION)SCORING INSTRUCTIONSMother, Father, and Peer Attachment scores are calculated by reverse-scoring the items whose numbers are listed below and summing all 25 items for each scale.Attachment ScaleItems to be reverse-scoredMother3 6 8 9 10 11 14 17 18 23Father3 6 8 9 10 11 14 17 18 23Peer4 5 9 10 11 18 22 23Authors: Mark T. Greenberg, Ph.D., and Gay C. Armsden, Ph.D.Department of Psychology, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA 98195-1525INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT:(MOTHER, FATHER, PEER VERSION)How to Score the Revised Version in Order toUse the Original IPPA SubscalesSUBSCALEITEM NUMBER ON REVISED VERSIONDirect-scored itemsReverse-scored itemsParent Trust1 2 4 12 13 20 21 223 9Parent Communication5 7 15 16 19 24 256 14Parent Alienation8 10 11 17 18 23Peer Trust6 8 12 13 14 15 19 20 215Peer Communication1 2 3 7 16 17 24 25Peer Alienation4 9 10 11 18 22 23*Some of these subscales are highly correlated on the original version of the instrument, making their independence questionable. Initial investigation of the dimensional structure of the revised version suggests a similar structure, but some differences exist between Mother and Father Attachment in item-content of the dimensions. Further investigation is warranted.INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT (IPPA)Authors:Gay Armsden, Ph.D. and Mark T. Greenberg, Ph.D. This questionnaire asks about your relationships with important people in your life; your mother, your father, and your close friends. Please read the directions to each part carefully.Part ISome of the following statements asks about your feelings about your mother or the person who has acted as your mother. If you have more than one person acting as your mother (e.g. a natural mother and a step-mother) answer the questions for the one you feel has most influenced you.Please read each statement and circle the ONE number that tells how true the statement is for you now. Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True 1. My mother respects my feeling. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I feel my mother does a good job as my mother. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I wish I had a different mother. 1 2 3 4 5 4. My mother accepts me as I am. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I like to get my mother’s point of view on things I’m concerned about. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I feel it’s no use letting my feelings show around my mother. 1 2 3 4 5 7. My mother can tell when I’m upset about something. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True 8. Talking over my problems with my mother makes me feel ashamed or foolish. 1 2 3 4 5 9. My mother expects too much from me. 1 2 3 4 510. I get upset easily around my mother. 1 2 3 4 511. I get upset a lot more than my mother knows about. 1 2 3 4 512. When we discuss things, my mother cares about my point of view. 1 2 3 4 513. My mother trusts my judgment. 1 2 3 4 514. My mother has her own problems, so I don’t bother her with mine. 1 2 3 4 515. My mother helps me to understand myself better. 1 2 3 4 516. I tell my mother about my problems and troubles. 1 2 3 4 517. I feel angry with my mother. 1 2 3 4 518. I don’t get much attention from my mother. 1 2 3 4 519. My mother helps me to talk about my difficulties. 1 2 3 4 520. My mother understands me. 1 2 3 4 521. When I am angry about something, my mother tries to be understanding. 1 2 3 4 522. I trust my mother. 1 2 3 4 523. My mother doesn’t understand what I’m going through these days. 1 2 3 4 524. I can count on my mother when I need to get something off my chest. 1 2 3 4 525. If my mother knows something is bothering me, she asks me about it. 1 2 3 4 5Part IIThis part asks about your feelings bout your father, or the man who has acted as your father. If you have more than one person acting as your father (e.g. natural and step-father) answer the question for the one you feel has most influenced you. Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True 1. My father respects my feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I feel my father does a good job as my father. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I wish I had a different father. 1 2 3 4 5 4. My father accepts me as I am. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I like to get my father’s point of view on things I’m concerned about. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I feel it’s no use letting my feelings show around my father. 1 2 3 4 5 7. My father can tell when I’m upset about something. 1 2 3 4 5 8. Talking over my problems with my father makes me feel ashamed or foolish. 1 2 3 4 5 9. My father expects too much from me. 1 2 3 4 510. I get upset easily around my father. 1 2 3 4 511. I get upset a lot more than my father knows about. 1 2 3 4 512. When we discuss things, my father cares about my point of view. 1 2 3 4 513. My father trusts my judgment. 1 2 3 4 514. My father has his own problems, so I don’t bother him with mine. 1 2 3 4 515. My father helps me to understand myself better. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True16. I tell my father about my problems and troubles 1 2 3 4 517. I feel angry with my father 1 2 3 4 518. I don’t get much attention from my father. 1 2 3 4 519. My father helps me to talk about my difficulties. 1 2 3 4 520. My father understands me. 1 2 3 4 521. When I am angry about something, my father tries to be understanding. 1 2 3 4 522. I trust my father. 1 2 3 4 523. My father doesn’t understand what I’m going through these days. 1 2 3 4 524. I can count on my father when I need to get something off my chest. 1 2 3 4 525. If my father knows something is bothering me, he asks me about it. 1 2 3 4 5Part IIIThis part asks about your feelings about your relationships with your close friends. Please read each statement and circle the ONE number that tells how true the statement is for you now. Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True 1. I like to get my friends’ point of view on things I’m concerned about. 1 2 3 4 5 2. My friends can tell when I’m upset about something. 1 2 3 4 5 3. When we discuss things, my friends care about my point of view. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Talking over my problems with friends makes me feel ashamed or foolish. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I wish I had different friends. 1 2 3 4 5 6. My friends understand me. 1 2 3 4 5 7. My friends encourage me to talk about my difficulties. 1 2 3 4 5 8. My friends accept me as I am. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I feel the need to be in touch with my friends more often. 1 2 3 4 510. My friends don’t understand what I’m going through these days. 1 2 3 4 511. I feel alone or apart when I am with my friends. 1 2 3 4 512. My friends listen to what I have to say. 1 2 3 4 513. I feel my friends are good friends. 1 2 3 4 514. My friends are fairly easy to talk to. 1 2 3 4 515. When I am angry about something, my friends try to be understanding. 1 2 3 4 516. My friends help me to understand myself better. 1 2 3 4 517. My friends care about how I am feeling. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Never or Never True Not Very Often True Some- times True Often True AlmostAlways or Always True18. I feel angry with my friends. 1 2 3 4 519. I can count on my friends when I need to get something off my chest. 1 2 3 4 520. I trust my friends. 1 2 3 4 521. My friends respect my feelings. 1 2 3 4 522. I get upset a lot more than my friends know about. 1 2 3 4 523. It seems as if my friends are irritated with me for no reason. 1 2 3 4 524. I can tell my friends about my problems and troubles. 1 2 3 4 525. If my friends know something is bothering me, they ask me about it. 1 2 3 4 5Additional InformationTranslationsThe following translations are available from the authors. Credit should be given to the translators when publishing results using their translations. Please note that most of these translations have not been reviewed for accuracy.AlbanianJapaneseBasqueKoreanBosnianLithuanianChineseMalayDutchNorwegianFilipinoRomanianFinnishSerbian FrenchSlovakGermanSpanishGreekTurkishIndonesianUrduItalianTranslations that have been made but we do not have a copy:PolishSinhalaSELECTED STUDIES USING THE IPPABy Year of Publication (Only Published Papers)1991Armsden, G.C., McCauley, E., Greenberg, M. T., Burke, P., & Mitchell, J. (1991). Parent and peer attachment in early adolescence depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 683-697.Papini, D. R., Roggman, L. A., & Anderson, J. (1991). Early-adolescent perceptions of attachment to mother and father: A test of emotional-distancing and buffering hypotheses. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 258-275.Williams, S. & McGee, R. (1991). Adolescent self-perceptions of their strengths. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 325-337.1992Cotterell, J. L. (1992). The relation of attachments and support to adolescent well-being and school adjustment. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 28-42.Capaldi, D. M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescence boys: II. A 2-year follow-up at Grade 8. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 125-144.Papin, D.R. & Roggmen, L.A. (1992). Adolescent perceived attachment to parents in relation to competence, depression, and anxiety: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 420-440.Raja, S.N., McGee, R., & Stanton, W.R. (1992). Perceived attachments to parents and peers and psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 471-485.1993Blain, M.D., Thompson, J.M., & Whiffen, V.E. (1993). Attachment and perceived social support in late adolescence: The interaction of working models of self and others. Journal of Adolescent Research, 8, 226-241.Cavell, T. A., Jones, D. C., Runyen, R.D., et al. (1993). Perception of attachment and the adjustment of adolescents with alcoholic fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 204-212.Lyddon, W. J., Bradford, E., Nelson, J. P. (1993). Assessing adolescent and adult attachment: A review of current self-report measures. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 390-395.1994Paterson, J. E., Field, J., Pryor, J. (1994). Adolescents’ perceptions of their attachment relationships with their mothers, fathers, and friends. Journal of Youth of Adolescence, 23, 579-599.Schultheiss, D. E. P., & Blustein, D. L. (1994). Role of adolescent-parent relationships in college student development and adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 248-255.Schultheiss, D. E. P., & Blustein, D. L. (1994). Contributions of family relationship factors to the identity formation process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 159-166.1995Haigler, V. F., Day, H. D., & Marhsall, D. D. (1995). Parental attachment and gender-role identity. Sex Roles, 33, 203-220. Kenny, M. E., Rice, K. G. (1995). Attachment to parents and adjustment in late adolescent college students. The Counseling Psychologist, 23, 433-456.Paterson, J., Pryor, J., Field, J. (1995). Adolescent attachment to parents and friends in relation to aspects of self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 365-376.1997Black, K. A., & McCartney, K. (1997). Adolescent females’ security with parents predicts the quality of peer relations. Social Development, 6, 91-110.Burge, D., Hammen, C., Davila, J., Daley, S.E., Paley, B., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Rudolph, K.D. (1997). The relationship between attachment cognitions and psychological adjustment in late adolescent women. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 151-167 Cambridge University Press.Dekovic, M., & Meeus, W. (1997). Peer relations in adolescence: effects of parenting and adoelescents’ self-concept. Journal of Adolescence, 20, 163-176.O’Koon, J. (1997). Attachment to parents and peers in late adolescence and their relationship with self-image. Adolescence, 32, 471-483.1998Mahraj, S. I., Rodin, G. B., Omslted, M. P., & Daneman, D. (1998). Eating disturbances, diabetes and the family: An empirical study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 44, 479-490.Allen, J.P., Moore, C., Kupermine, G., & Bell, K. (1998). Attachment and Adolescent Psychosocial Functioning, Child Development, October; 69(5), 1406–1419. 1999Capaldi, D. M., & Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: III Prediction to young-adult development. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 59-84.Moon, M. J., Dekovic, M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (1999). Autonomy, attachment and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence: a double-edged sword. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 771-783.2000DiFilippo, J.M., &? Overholser?, J.C. (2000). Suicidal ideation in adolescent psychiatric inpatients as associated with depression and attachment relationships. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 155-166.Formoso. D. Gonzales, N. A., & Aiken,L. S. (2000) Family conflict and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior: Protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 175-199.Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Raffaelli, M. (2000). The differential relations of parent and peer attachment to adolescent adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 45-59.Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (2000). Agents of change: Pathways through which mentoring relationships influence adolescent’ academic adjustment. Child Development, 71, 1662-1671.Rice, K. G., & Mirzadeh, S. A. (2000). Perfectionism, attachment and adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 238-250. Vivona, J. M. (2000). Parental attachment styles of late adolescents: Qualities of attachment relationships and consequences for adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 316-329. Woodward L.J., Fergusson D.M., & Belsky J. (2000) Timing of parental separation and attachment to parents in adolescence: Results of a prospective study from birth to age 16. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62(1), 162-174.2001Chipuer, H. M. (2001) Dyadic attachments and community connectedness: Links with youths’ loneliness experiences. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 429-446.Engels, R. C. M. E., Finkenauer, C., Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. (2001). Parental attachment and adolescents’ emotional adjustment: The associations with social skills and relational competence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 428-439.McCarthy, C. J., Moller, N. P., & Fouladi, R.T. (2001). Continued attachment to parents: Its relationship to affect regulation and perceived stress among college students. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 33, 198-213.Pavlidis, K., & McCauley, E. (2001). Autonomy and relatedness in family interactions with depressed adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 11-21.Simon, K. J., Paternite, C. E. , & Shore, C (2001). Quality of parent/adolescent attachment and aggression in young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 182-203.Wilkinson, R. B., & Walford, W. A. (2001). Attachment and personality in the psychological health of adolescents, Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 473-484.2002Adams, E. K, & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (2002). Home sweet home: Parental separations, residential moves, and adjustment problems in low-income adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 38, 792-805.McKinney, K. G. (2002). Engagement in community service among college students: Is it affected by significant attachment relationships? Journal of Adolescence, 25, 139-154.Meeus, W., Oosterwegel, A., & Vollebergh, W. (2002). Parental and peer attachment and identity development in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 93-106.Milne, L. C., & Lancaster, S. (2002) Predictors of depression in female adolescents. Adolescence, 36, 207-223.Orzolek-Kronner, C. (2002). The effect of attachment theory in the development of eating disorders: Can symptoms be proximity-seeking?, Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 19, 421-435.Smetana, J. G, Crean, H. F., & Daddis, C. (2002) Family processes and problem behaviors in middle-class African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 12, 275-304Sund, A. M., & Wichstrom, L. (2002). Insecure attachment as a risk factor for future depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1478-1485.2003Beitel, M., & Cecero, J. J. (2003). Predicting psychological mindedness from personality style and attachment security. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 163-172.Coleman, P. K. (2003). Perceptions of parent-child attachment, social self-efficacy, and peer relationships in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 12, 351-368.Johnson, L. N., Ketring, S. A., Abshire, C. (2003) The revised inventory of parent attachment: Measuring attachment in families. Contemporary Family Therapy, 25, 333-349.2004Buist, K. L., Dekovic, M. Meeus, W. H., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2004). Attachment in adolescence: A social relations model analysis. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 826-850.Essau, C. A. (2004). The Association between family factors and depressive disorders in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(5), 365-372.Rubin, K.H., Dwyer, K.M., Booth-LaForce, C. Kim, A.H., Burgess, K.B., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2004). Attachment, friendship, and psychosocial functioning in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, November 1, 24(4): 326 - 356.Schwartz, J. P., & Buboltz, W. C. (2004). The Relationship between attachment to parents and psychological separation in college students. Journal of College Student Development, 45, 566-577.Smetana, J. G., Metzger, A., & Campione-Barr, N. (2004). African American Late Adolescents' Relationships With Parents: Developmental Transitions and Longitudinal Patterns. Child Development, 75 932-947.Vignoli, E., & Mallet, P. (2004). Validation of a brief measure of adolescents' parent attachment based on Armsden and Greenberg's three-dimension model. European Review of Applied Psychology, 54(4), 251-260.Wilkinson, R. B., & Kraljevic, M. (2004). Adolescent Psychological Health and School Attitudes: The Impact of Attachment Relationships. Proceedings of the Australian Psychological Society’s Psychology of Relationships Interest Group 4th Annual Conference, 150-155. Melbourne, Australia: The Australian Psychological Society.2005Abela, J.R.Z., Hankin, B.L., Haigh, E.A.P., Adams, P., Vinokuroff, T., & Trayhern, L. (2005). Interpersonal vulnerability to depressive episodes in high risk children: The role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 182-192.Costa, N.M. & Weems, C.F. (2005). Maternal and child anxiety: Do attachment beliefs or children's perceptions of maternal control mediate their association? Social Development, 14(4), 574.Gullone, E., & Robinson, K. (2005). The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment--Revised (IPPA-R) for Children: A Psychometric Investigation. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 12, 67-79.Nickerson, A.B., & Nagle, R.J. (2005). Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, May 1, 25(2), 223 - 249.Rhodes, J. E., Reddy, R., & Grossman, J. B. (2005). The Protective Influence of Mentoring on Adolescents' Substance Use: Direct and Indirect Pathways, Applied Developmental Science, 9, 31-47.Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Guterman, E., Abbott, C. 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