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Klb biology book 3

Biology Form 3 Notes Of Secondary School Of House --Mathematics ---Form 1 Mathematical Note ---Form 2 Mathematics Notes ---Form 3 Notes ---Form Mathematics Notes ---Form 1 Questions and Answers in Mathematics Topical ---Form 2 Questions and Answers ---Form Mathematics Questions and Answers ---Form4 Mathematics Topical Questions and Answers --Language ---Blossom Savannah ---A Doll's House ---The Pearl Study Guide ---Memories We Lost ---Inheritance Study Guide ---Form 1 Functional Writing Notes ---Form 2 Functional Writing Notes ---Form Note Functional Writing ---Form 4 Functional Writing Notes --Kiswahili ---Tumbo Lililoshiba na Hadithi Nyingine ---Mwongozo wa Kigogo ---Mwongozo wa Chozi La Heri ---Sarufi na Matumizi ya Lugha ---He studies JamiiIsimu --- Notes ---AUshairi Note ---Mwongozo wa Kuandika Insha --Biology ---Biology Form 1 Notes ---Biology Form 2 Notes ---Biology Form 3 Notes ---Course Form 4 Notes ---Essays -Chemical ---Form 1 Chemical Notes ---Form 2 Chemical Notes ---Form 3 Chemical Notes ---Form 4 Chemical Notes ---Deffamical Disappointment --Physics --- Physics Form 1 Notes ---Fic Form 2 Note ---Fik Form 3 Notes ---Fitnik Form 4 Notes --Form CRE ---CRE 1 Notes ---Plear 2 Notes ---IAR Form 3 Note ---I QUALIFY Form 4 Notes --IRE ---SAYar Form 1 Notes --SAYar Form 12 Notes ---Consections Note ---ARE Form 4 Notes --Geographical --- Form 1 Notes --- Form 2 Notes ---Geo Form 3 Notes ---Posographic Pursuity of Form 4 Notes --History and Government of --- the submit Form 1 Notes ---Such Form 2 Notes ---Sejarah 3 Notes ---Sejarah Form 4 Notes --Agriculture ---Griculture Form 1 Note --- Note 2 Notes --- Agriculture Form 3 Note ---Compliance Of Form 4 Notes --- KCSE 2019 --Business Review ---Reach Form 1 Note ---Exstaination Review Form 2 Notes --- Review of Relief Studies Form 3 Form --- Review Relief Form 4 Notes --- Commuter Studies Form 1 Note --- Commuter Studies Form 2 Notes ---Nots Level --and 3 Notes --- Commuter Study Form 4 Notes -Home Sciences ---Hometer Form 2 Notes ---Apayment of Science Form 3 Notes ---Home Science Form 4 Time Then --KCSE ---KCSE 2017 Report ---KCSE 2008 ---KCSE 2019 ---KCSE 2009 ---KCSE 2010 ---KCSE 2011 ---KCSE 2012 ---2013 ---KCSE 2014 ---KCSE 2015 ---KCSE 2016 --KCSE IN 2017 --pre-MOCKS EXAMINATION ---2016 ----MOKASA ---2018-Mo 2018 ----NON DIOCESE (CDK) ? 2018 PRE-MOCK WITH ---2019 Pra-Mocks marking scheme --MOCKS ---2016 ----Bunyore Maranda MOCKS 2016 ---2017 Mock Papers Past ----ing Mocks ----Murang'a Mocks ---2019 Mocks Past Papers ----MOKASA Mocks ----'s Capsabet Boys ----LAINAKU Mock ----KAMEGA Mocks -- National School Of Past Papers ---Trodeapping Boys High School ----2018 Past Papers ----- ---KaMEGA Mocks --Sekolah Kebangsaan Lepas Paper ---- 2018 After Paperwork -----Marning High School 2018 Form 1 School Term Papers ---Form 1 PostPass Papers ----2019 Form 1 Term 1 Revision of Paperwork ---We 3 Papers ----2020 Form 3 Period 1 Revision of Papers ---We 4 Past Papers ----2020 Form 41 Revision of Post Paperwork ---El 2 Papers ----20 19 Form 2 Terms 1 Revision of Past Papers --KCSE Forecast Papers ---2019 KCSE Forecast Papers ----2019 Past Papers Forecast KCSE set 1 ---2019 KCSE Forecast Past Papers Papers Prescribed 2 ---2020 KCSE Forecast Paper ---2021 KCSE Paperwork Forecast ----2021 Questions and Answers KCSE Prediction SET 1 -- Topical Review Questions and Answers ---Basal Questions and Answers ToPics ----Form 1 Biological Checkpoint Questions and Answers Homework and Syllabus ---2021 Play Group Activities, Homework and Learning Materials ----Set 1 Play Group Learning Materials --Pre-Primary One - PP1 : Activities, Housework and Examination ---2021 Pre-Principal One - PP1 Learning Materials ----2021 Pre-Principal One PP1 - Revision and Examination Paper - Prescribed 1 -Pre-Principal - PP2 : Activities, Homework and Examination ---2021 Pre-Major Two - PP2 Learning Materials ----2021 Pre-Principal Two PP2 - Revision and Examination Paper - Set 1 --CBC Grade 1: Subject, Syllabus and Examination ---2021 Grade 1 Learning Material ----2021 Grade 1 - Paper and Examination : Subject, Homework and Examination ---2021 Grade 2 Learning Materials ----2021 Grade 2 - Revision and Examination Paper - Set 1 --CBC Grade 3 : Examination Paper, Syllabus and Subject ---2021 Grade 3 Learning Materials ----2021 Grade 3 - Papers and Examinations - Papers Syllabus and Subjects ---2021 Grade 4 Learning Materials ----2021 Grade 4 - Paper Review and Examination -- Prescribe 1 --STD 8 Past Papers --Biology --Chemistry --English --Mathematics --Business Scheme Observing metamorphosis in Some Classification Ii Insects Classification General Principles are science that puts organisms into different groups to make their study simple and systematic. Modern scientific classification is based on structures and functions. Organisms with similar anatomical and morphological properties are placed in one group while those with different structures are grouped separately. Modern studies in genetics and cell biochemicals are used to provide additional assistance in classifying the organism. There are seven major takoonomous groups. Government is the largest group. Others are physilum (division for plants) classes, orders, families, genera and species, which are impressed. The Binomial Nomenclature Living organism is named using a Latin or Latinised name. Each organism has two names. This double nomination is called binomial nomenclature. This naming system was created by Carolus in the 18th century. The first name is a generic name - the name of the genus. The second name is the name of the species. Generic names begin with uppercase letters while species start small The names are written in ducks or outlined in manuscripts. Example: Peanut =Fasaolus vulgaris. Fasaolus is a generic name, vulgaris is a specific name. Dog = Kanis familiaris. Kanis is a generic name, familiarizing with a particular name. The general characteristics of the Organismic Kingdom are classed to the five kingdoms. Monera, Protoctista, Kulat, Plantae Animalia. The virus does not fit clearly into any of the kingdoms above. They are easy and un cellular. They are metabolically inactive outside the host cell. Most of them can be criticized like chemical molecules. Therefore, they do not exhibit the characteristics of living organisms. Examples of Organisma in Each Kingdom and Their Economic Interests Common Monera Kingdom Unicellular and microscopic Features Some single cells, others colonial nuclear materials that are not included in the nuclear-prokaryotic membrane Have cell walls but not cellulose. Having some organelles that are not membrane bound Mitochondria are not present Most are heterotrophic, saprotrophistic feeding or parasitic, some are autotrophic. Breeding is mostly asexual through second fisions Most are anaerobic but others are aerobes Most moves by Flagella examples include Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae and Clostridium tetani. The sphera is known as Cocci. Rod shaped - for example Clostridium Spiral tetani shaped like sprilla Coma shaped- Vibrios -for example, Vibrio cholera. The economic interests of bacteria Benefit to humans include: They are used in the processing of food for example, Lactobacillus is used in the processing of cheese, yogurt. Involved in the synthesis of vitamin Band K, in humans and cellulose fragments in herbivores. Genetic Engineering bacteria are easy to cultivate and are being used to make antibiotics, aminoasids and enzymes such as amylase, and unactive for example, Escherichia coli. Cycling nutrients: Saprophytes They are involved in decomposition of dead organic matter. They're useful in the nitrogen cycle. Determination of nitrogen and nitrifying bacteria. They increase soil fertility. The work of kumbahan modem using bacteria in the treatment kumbahan. Cleanup of oil spills in the oceans and lake. Harmful Effects of Bacteria causing disease: To humans (e.g. Cholera). To an interviewer (e.g. Anthrax). Bacteria cause food damage. Others cause food poisoning e.g. Salmonella. Denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility for example, Pseudomonas denitrificans. Examples of Royal Protoctistas include; Algae such as spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, euglena, sargassum and protozoa such as amoeba, paramecium and Trypanosoma. Common features They are said to be eukaryotic because their nucleus is bound to the membrane Most are mobile, and use flagella, cilia and pseudopodia. Something's sessile. They re-produce mainly asexually, by fisions of multipliment, flakes sporulation. Some are sexually reproducing with conjugation. Some are heterotrophic for example paramecium. Others are autotrophic for example spirogyra. The economic importance of algae protoctista is a leading producer in the aquatic food chain. They release a lot Atmosphere. Some cause human diseases such as malaria and amoebic dysentery, sleeping diseases There are food sources for humans for example sargassum is a source of iodine frame used in the manufacture of paint. Spirogyra: They have chloroplast circles. They are green, filament-like yarn Chlamydomonas: These are unicellular green algae and have a cup-shaped chloroplast. They move towards light using the Cilia flagella helping the organism to move. This form is caused by the presence of a thin flexible pelliklik. The Multicellular Kulat of the Kulat Kingdom was made of a thread-like structure called hyphae (single hyphae) that formed mycelium. .e.g.Saccharomyces cereviseae (roti yis). Others include Penicillium, Rhizopus, and edible fungus Economic Importance The beneficial effect of Kulat Some kulat is used as a food e.g. mushrooms. Some are seals that increase damage to improve soil fertility - a re-cycle of nutrients for example, toadstools. There are useful in the manufacture and bread made for example, yis. Yis is used as a food - a rich source of B vitamins. There is a useful in the production of antibiotics for example, Penicillium griseofulvin. Used in kumbahan treatment for example, Fusarium spp. Harmful Effects There is a cause of food poisoning by producing toxic substances such as the taste of Aspergillus which produces aflatoxins. Some cause damage to food, cloth and wood damage through decomposition. Some cause diseases to humans for example, athlete's legs and worms. Others cause plant diseases such as, bright potatoes (Irish potatoes) rusted in tomato and smut in bijirin. Plantae Kingdoms General Features They are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are photosynthetic and have chlorophyll pigments. Their cells have cellulose walls. They re-produce sexually, others asexually. Kingdom Plantae has three main divisions: Bryophyta, Pteridophyta Spermatophyta. Bryophyta part It includes

mosquitoes and liver. The body of plants is not wronged to the roots, stems and leaves. They have an easy structure that resembles leaves and stems. They have rhizoids to absorb water and anchor plants to the substratum. The living cycle consists of two different morphological plants, gametophyte and sporophyte. Both lions. They showed generations. Gamete produces gametophyte is a continuing plant. The sporophyte is attached to the gametophyte and the eating depends on it. They lack a vascular system. Sexual breeding depends on water. Pteridophyta Part: This includes ferns and horsetails. General characteristics They have a root system and shoot. The leaves are compound known as fronds, they have a vascular system. They show generational replacement where sporophyte bearing spore is the main plant. Spores are borne in batchs at the bottom of the leaf making sari. Gametophyte is an independent minute structure called short-lived prothallus. Sexual reproduction depends on water. Spermatophyta Section This is a seed bearing plant. Seeds. The characteristics of the plant's body are mixed into the roots, stems and leaves. Vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem. Sexual reproduction is free of water. The male gametophyte (consensus cereal) germinates and grows to reach the female gametophyte. They are divided into two sub-sections: Gymnosperms Angiosperms. Gymnosperms These are con-bearing plants. Naked seeds. They are trees and shrubs. Xylem consists of tracheids only. Examples; pine, cypress and spices. They show xerophytic features like having needle-like leaves. Angiosperms seeds are included in the fruit. It consists of trees, shrubs and herbs. Xylem consists of a tracheid ship. These are the most advanced plants. The Angiosperms have two classes; Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae. Comparisons dicotyledonae and Monocotyledonae Economic Interests Spermatophyta They are food sources for humans and other animals. Source fue1wood fuel and charcoal. Source wood for buildings and for paper. Ornamental plants. Useful in the textile industry. The Animalia Government Most animals move from place to place looking for food. The main Fizla is: Platyhelminthes (Tapeworm). Nematoda (Ascaris). Annelida (Landworm). Mollusca (Snails). Arthropoda chordata Phylum Arthropoda Distinguishes Features They have been with attachments, which are dedicated to various functions. Their bodies are covered by hard exoskeletons made of chitin. It is poured at intervals to enable growth. They have been together body parts. Most are divided into heads, thorax and stomach. Some have two parts of the body, the Body General Characteristics is divided. They have bilateral symmetrics. The gas exchange is through a tracheal, lung book or gills system that opens outwards through a spiral. Aquatic shapes use gills. Reproduction is particularly sexual. They have an open blood circulation system. Phylum Arthropoda is divided into five classes; Crustacea, Arachnida, Chilopoda, Diplopoda Insecta This section is based on: Number of limbs. The presence and number of antennas. Number of body parts. Most of them Crustacea classes are aquatic, some are terrestrial found in damp spots for example, woodlouse. Distinguishes the Characteristics Of Two parts of the body of the head and thorax is stamped to form cephalothorax and stomach. They have two pairs of antennas; one is small and branched out, the other is long. They have five or more parts of the limbs. Some of them are modified for other functions such as, locomotives, nutrition and defence. Exoskeleton dreowns with a calcium carbonate deposit which is carapace. Other features of the Mouthparts include a pair of baths and two pairs of maxillae. The gas exchange is through gills. They have a pair of compound eyes. Most crustaceans live freely but some are for example, barnacles. An example is the fish of cob and cob. Arachnida Class members are victims of carnivores and paralysis using poison produced from poison nails. Distinguishing Body Features has two parts: cephalothorax and stomach. Cephalothorax is head-to-head to the thorax. A pair of chelicerae, on the ventral side of the cephalothorax. They have four pairs of walking legs. They don't have antennas. Instead they have a pair of short pedipalps that are sensitive to the touch. Most arachnids use lung books for gas exchange. Other features include easy eyes. Examples include garden spiders, fleas, eye canta. Chilopoda class e.g. Centipede Distinguishes Body Features having 2 body, head and trunk. The body is elongated, and has 15 or more segments. Has a pair of legs on each segment. The body is dorso-ventrally flattened. Other features include: The head has a pair of antennae. Gas exchange through the tracheal system. Is there a carnivore. Diplopod class e.g. Distinguishing Characteristics of Millipede Has two legs: head, short thorax and trunk . The body extends by 9-100 segments. Has two pairs of legs on each segment. They have a cylindrik body. Gas exchange is by tracheal system. Other features: The head has a pair of antennae. Is there a herbaceous. Insecta Class Distinguishes Body Traits divided into three body bodies of the head, thorax and abdomen. They have three pairs of legs.. Most insects have a pair or two wings. Other features include: A pair of antennae. They breathe through circles, and gas exchange is through the tracheal system. This class is divided into several orders based on: Mouth part - a type of example biting or piercing. The position of the mouthparts - ventral or anterior. Wings - presence or absence; number of wings, structure, texture. Leg size. Orthoptera Command Has pinggit and chews the mouth. Rear the legs longer than other legs e.g. fore wings, skin and longer than the hind legs . e.g. locusts and locusts. Swarming - self-defense is a tranquillity to farmers and the environment as they destroy crops and vegetables. True Diptera orders flies for example households, and mosquitoes have sucked and piercing mouthparts, 1 pair of wings. The second pair is vestigial- acting as a tray. Mouthparts are ventral. This is a vector of disease for example, female anopheles mosquitoes emit malaria. Lepidoptera Butterflies command and mothers have sucked the mouth, Two pairs of wings are covered by scales. This group is important to farmers in inflorescences. Command hymenoptera bees, wasps, ants. They've sucked mouthparts, two pairs of boring wings. Some do not wing for example some ants. Bees are important in the inflorescences that are in the production of honey. Isoptera commands - Anai-anai They have an anterior biting mouthpart. Most are winged, those with their wings are boring and the same size. They are important in cycling nutrients because they feed on cellulose. Order Coleoptera - Beetles Have mouthparts Two pairs of wings, hardened Fore wings attach membrane wings. Destruction of seeds and stored stiffness (pulse throb) Phylum Chordata This name comes from the term notochord. It is a long flexible rod-like structure. The more familiar Kordan is known as In vertebrates, notochord exists only in the stage of embryo development which at a later stage is replaced by a vertebral lane. The main features of the Vertebrates bees are important in the inflorescences which are in the production of phylum honey experts having notochord at the initial stage of development. They have visceral theft ? which perforating the cracks of the body wall in the pharynx. In fish these cracks become gills while in the higher cordate these cracks are found only in embryos. They have dorsal nerve chords, hollow. It develops into the brain at the anterior and tuned nerves at the posterior end. The tuning nerve is included in the vertebral lane. They have muscle blocks of segments known as myotomes in both hales. They have a post-mortem tail although rudimentary in some people. They have a closed circulatory system. The heart lies meticulously. They have an inside order. The main class of phylum chordata is; Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves Mammalia. Pisces Class This is a fish. Some fish have skeletons made of prone for example jerung. Others like Tilapia have bony frames. Distinguishing Their traits is aquatic. Movement is by way of fins. They have packed bodies. They have a lateral line for sensitivity. Their heart has two spaces, the auricle and the ventricle - the circulatory system is easy. Other features Change their body temperature according to the temperature of the environment. They are ectothermic. The body is covered with scale. They have gills for gas exchange. Show off the outer awaan. Larval Amphibious Class forms are aquatic while adults are terrestrial. Adults return to the water for breeding e.g. frogs, toads, beginners, salamanders. Distinguishes The Features of Soft skin and without scale. They have four advanced limbs. The hind limbs are longer and more muscular than the forelimbs. Limbs can be used to walk, jump and swim gaseous exchanges are through the skin, gills and lungs. The middle ear is present. Other Features They have a heart of three kebuk with two atria and one ventrika. Nursing is out of the question. They are ectothermic (poikilotherms). Examples of Class Reptiles are snakes, crocodiles, lizards, swearing, turtles and turtles. Distinguishes The Features of Dry Skin and is covered by a horny scale. The nursing is deep. Some species eggs contain a lot of yellow and have both calcareous skins or grips. They have multiple circulatory systems. The heart has three spaces - two atria and a partly divided ventricle. However the crocodile has a four-chamber heart. Other features They are ectothermic (poikilothermic). Has 2 pairs of limbs. They use the lungs for gas exchange. Class Aves This is a bird. is terrestrial and arboreal and others are aquatic e.g. flamingos, geese, ostriches, penguins, hawks, dove. Distinguishing Body Traits protected by feathers and legs with a horny scale. They have two two limbs. Fore's limbs were modified to form a wing for the flight. The back limbs are to walk or swim. Mouth is a prominent immersion. They have threesome bones. They have multiple circulation with a heart of four chambers (2 atria, 2 ventricles). They have a lung for gas exchange. The lungs are connected to the air snack in the bones. Caring is internal. They lay eggs with calcareous fragile shells. They have a constant body temperature therefore is homoiotherms (endothermic). Mammali ClassEs They are arboreals e.g. tree squirrels, others are awdered for example other humans are aquatics such as dolphins and whales. Distinguishing Features They have mammary glands hence the name of the class. The body is covered with wool or hair. Their teeth are distinguished into four types (heterodont determination). They have an external ear pinna. Most have sweat glands. They have a diaphrasation that separates the body cavities into thoracic and stomach. Other features of internal infertilement - most give birth. They have a double blood circulation system with a four-chamber liver. They are endothermic (homoiotherms) . Eg Duck-billed Platypus (egg-laying mammal) Eg.Kangaroo (poached mammal) The youngster was born insanely and nourished in a pouch with milk glands from the milk glands. Placental Mammals They gave birth to fully developed youngsters who were given milk from the mail glands. Some are aquatic. for example dolphins, whales, others fly for example bats; Most of these are terrestrial for example rabbits, elephants, buffaloes, giraffes, antelope, cows, humans. Place mammals are divided into multiple orders: Rodentia: for example rats, rats - have one pair of top 9f inches. Insectivora: for example moles-them like rats: Carnivora: for example dogs; lions - meat eaters, they have long pointed canines. Cetacea: for example whales and dolphins are ?Active. Forelimbs is flippers. Chiroptera: for example bats - Forelimbs forms wings. Artiodactyla: for example antelopes, cows - they are even inhaled with split nails. Perissodactyla: for example horses, asses - they are ganjal with nails. Proboscidea: for example elephants - upper lips and noses that belong to form a trunk. Lagomorpha: for example rabbits, rabbits - mammals with upper and lower incisors. Have a bigger hind leg than forelegs. Primata: for example gorilla, utang people, chimpanzee, monkeys - some are arboreal, with arms and legs to hold. Man - Homo sapiens - upheld gait, opposing thumbs therefore use tools. Construction and Use of The Biological Keys dichotomous is a set of statements that act as indicators that lead to the identification of the organism. By following the keys we can put the organism in its group. Keys that are usual is the dichotomous key. This is a biological tool for identifying unknown organisms. The dichotomous word means branch to two. A single feature is considered at a time. Two different statements are put forward to describe such characteristics as to separate the organism. This continues until all organisms have been identified. Rules used for a Dichotomous Key Uses morphological characteristics as far as possible for example the type of leaves - simple or compound. Select a feature at a time and identify by number. 1. Types of leaves. . Use the same word shape for two different statements for example: a) Smell of flowers. b) Flowers are not twisted. Start with the main characteristics that divide the organism into two large groups then proceed to a lower variation that will separate the organism further into a smaller group. Use positive statements especially the first. Avoid general e.g. short plants. Specifically in your description example: a) plants above 1m tall. b) Plants below 1m high. Some Common Features Used for Identification In Leaf Plants 1. Type of Leaves (a) Compound Leaves. (b) Type of venation. Simple Leaves Trifoliate Pinnate Types of Leaf margins. Types of order of leaves on the trunk. The color of the leaves. Ofleaf texture; either furry or smooth. Forms of leaves e.g. palm oil. Stems Type trunks - wood or herbs. Shapes of stems - cylindrics or rectangles. Smooth or rotating trunk texture. Infloresens Are flower terminals or laterals For each flower: Are there common or unregular flowers? The number of flower parts for each whorl. Is the flower free or complimentary part? Root System Type- Taproot or fibrous? Root function. In the Characteristics of Animals used to identify animals: Types of mouthparts. Types of skeletons. The presence or absence of an antenna. Body segments. Body coverings: scales, feathers, hair or feathers. Number of body parts. Locomotory structure: legs, wings and fins. Presence or absence of a vertebral column. Presence and type of night. Practical Activities To inspect Bryophyta Mature Moss Plant are obtained. Specimens are observed using hand-lenses. The labeled drawings show the structures made: rhizoids, setting capsules, gametophyte, sporophyte .. To inspect Pteridophyta Mature fern plant is obtained. It is observed using hand lenses. Sori can be seen at the bottom of the fronds. The labeled drawings show: fronds, pinna, sorus, roots willing and challenging. To check that Spermatophyta Twig matures either cypress or pine with cones obtained. Male and female observations are made using hand lenses. Naked seeds are mentioned. The leaves show xerophytic features like they are rolled, or needles like. Mature bean plants with pods are obtained, Leaf observations, stems and roots are made. Leaves are compounded, spacious arids have a network of veins. Ieaf-has a leaf trunk. They have a plumbing root system. The flower part is in five for example 5 petals. The bean seeds have two cotyledons. Mature plants are obtained. Leaf observations, stems and roots are made. The leaves are simple, narrow and long with parallel veins.. Petioles are modified to form leaves. They have an a-fibrous root system. Flower parts in three. Gram of corn has one cotyledon, Arthropoda crayfish Specimen Exam, millipede, locust centipede and spider Where the specimen is unavailable the picture is used. External features of the specimen are observed. The differences in the following are mentioned: Body parts. Antenae. Other attachments. Eyes. The following Chordata Specimens examinations are obtained: Tilapia, frogs, Lizards, birds and rabbits. Using the visible features of each specimen is placed into its class. Features used include: Body coverings. Limbs. Types of teeth. Ecological Introduction Ecology Is a study of their organism and environment. All organisms indicate mutual reliance on each other. Organisms are affected by their surroundings, and they in turn influence the environment. Green plants produce food by photosynthesis for which other organisms get directly or indirectly. Plant growth is mainly influenced by environmental factors such as soil and climate factors. On the other hand, organisms modify the environment through various activities. This connectivity includes ecological studies. Ecological studies are important in several fields of study such as agriculture and environmental studies. Concepts and Terms Used in Ecological Habitat: This is the place or house that the organism lives or is found, for example, forests or pastures. Niche: Niche is a functioning unit in habitat. It includes not only certain places where the organism lives but also how the organism works. To avoid or decrease competition, the organisms are separated or isolated by their niches, for example, different species of birds make their nests on one tree, some at the end of the terminal branch, and other food on leaves, some on flowers and others on the fruits of the same tree, that is, the food niche. Yet others feed on the same food, for example, worms in the same place but at different times - the time of the niche. Population: The term population refers to the individual number of species living in certain areas at a certain time. Density is the number of population individuals found in the unit area, that is, Dispersion: This is the distribution of individuals in the available spaces. Insulation may be uniform as in corn plants on farms; random as in cactas plants in the savannah ecosystem or gather together like the human population in cities. Community: This is a term used to describe all organisms living together in the area. During the development of the ecosystem, the composition of community species changed progressively through the stages. Finally a steady situation is achieved and this is described as a clinch community. The development of this ecosystem is termed as an inheritance. Every stage in the development of an ecosystem is a cere. Succession is primary when it begins with exposed soil, and secondary when it starts in previously inhabited areas for example after clearing the forest. Communities and abiotic or non-living environments together form an ecosystem or ecological system. In the energy flow the system is clearly defined from the manufacturer to the user and the nutrient cycling occurs connecting all non-living organisms and environments. Biomass: This is the mass of all organisms in certain areas. Ideally, it is a dry mass that should be compared. Storage capacity: This is a maximum sustainable density in certain areas for example the number of herbivores the given area can support without overgrazing. Factors in the Abiotic Ecosystem (environmental factors) Temperature Are the warmth or congestion of an area or habitat. It directly affects the distribution and productivity (revenue) of the population and the community. Most organisms are found in areas where temperatures are moderate. However, certain plants and animals have an adaptation that allows them to stay in areas where temperatures are in extreme conditions such as hot deserts and cold pole areas. Temperature not only affects the distribution of the organism but also determines the activity of animals. High temperatures usually accelerate the rate of photosynthesis, transpiration, emptiquetation and decompiration and recycling of organic matter in the ecosystem. Light light is needed by green plants for photosynthesis. The intensity of light, duration and qualities affects the organism in one way or another. Force Atmospheric Pressure each area of the atmospheric air unit imposed on the organism at different altitudes. The growth of plants and the activity of animals is affected by atmospheric stress for example, the transpiration rate of plants and breathing in animals. Salinity This is the content of soil salt or water. Animals and plants living in saline conditions have special adaptations. Moisture This explains the amount of humidity (water vapor) in the air. Humidity affects the rate of transpiration in plants and eggplants in animals. pH Is a measure of acidity or alkali settlement of soil or water. pH is very important to the organism living in water and soil. Most prefer neutral pH. Wind: Is moving the air current and it affects certain plant divers by executing spore divers, seeds and fruits. The air current also modifies the temperature and humidity of the environment. Topography: This is a surface feature of the place. Topographical factors considered include altitude, horror (slopes), depression and hills. All of these features affect the distribution of organisms in areas for example, leeward sides and hill windwards. Biotic factors: These are living components in the ecosystem, competition predation, symbiosis, parasitism, human activity. The relationship between organisms The relationship between the organisms in the given ecosystem is mainly feeding. Organisms in certain habitats have different levels of nutrition referred to as trophy levels. There are two main trophy levels: The manufacturer: This organism occupies the first level of the trophy. They manufacture their own food therefore is autotrophic. These are organisms that feed on organic matter produced by green plants. They occupy differently Levels as follows: The main users: These are herbivores and foods on green plants. Secondary consumers: These are carnivores and food on meat. The first order carnivorous feeds herbivores while the second order carnivore feeds on other carnivores, which is the tertiary user. Omnivores: These are animals that feed on both plant and animal substances. They can be the main, secondary or tertiary users. Competition: This explains the situation in which two or more organisms in the same habitat require or depend on the same source. Organisms in the ecosystem compete for sources such as food, space, light, water and mineral nutrients. Competition occurs when environmental resources are not enough for all. Intraspecific competition. This is a competition between the organisms of the same species. For example, plant corn in the field competes for water and nutrients among themselves. Interspecific competition. This refers to competition between different species organisms, for example, different species of predate can compete for water and victims among themselves. Predation It is a relationship in which one animal (predate) feeds the other (prey). Saprophytism Saprophytism is a common nutritional way in certain species of fungi and bacteria. Such organisms consume dead organic matter and release nutrients through depriation or damage processes. Saprophytes produce an enzyme, which digests the substate externally. The simpler material is then instiled. Saprophytes help in reducing the accumulation of bodies of dead plants and animals. Dangerous saprophytes cause rapid damage to foods such as fruits, vegetables, milk and meat. Others damage the building by causing wooden rot. Some fungi produce toxic substances called aflatoxins. These substances are associated with cereal crops stored under warm and humid conditions. If infected cereals are consumed, it can cause serious illnesses, and death. Parasitism This is a link between members of different species. Parasites live in or in the body of other organisms, hosts. Parasites benefit such as food and shelter from the host but the heist suffers from harm as a result. Symbiosis This is an association in which different species organisms benefit together with each other. Some syndiotic associations are loose and both partners get very little with each other. Other associations of syndrome are more intimate and the organism indicates a high level of interconnectedness. Nitrogen cycles Are interdependent to each other's organisms and physical environments because nitrogen is detected from and back to the atmosphere Although nitrogen is found in many atmospheres, most organisms cannot use them directly. Some bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms that other living organisms can use. These bacteria are referred to as nitrogen fIxing bacteria. Symbiotic nitrogen sets live bacteria in legume root nodes like nuts and peanuts. Non-syndiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the ground. Nitrifying bacteria' turns ammonia into nitrites and nitrites. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrat into atmospheric nitrogen. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem Most of the energy used in the ecosystem is obtained from the sun. Solar energy is trapped by photosynthesis plants. It flows through different levels of trophies. At every level the energy disappears as heat into space and also through breathing. Besides animals lose energy through strengthening and aiding. The amount of energy passed as food from one trophy level to another progressively declined. Energy in organisms is recycled to plants through various nutrient cycles or substances. Food Chain Food chain is a linear relationship between manufacturers and consumers. It represents the transfer of food energy from green plants through recurring and consumed feeding stages. The type of food chain grazing food chain - starting with green plants. Detritus of the food chain - begins with dead organic substances (debris or detritus). Detritivores: Detritivores of food on organic waste and dead things obtained from grazing food chains. Many different types of organisms eat on detritus. They include fungi, protozoa, insects, annelids and nematodes. Examples of Green Plant Food Chains ~ aphids ~ Green Plant women beetles ~ antelope -lion Algae ~ Tilapia ~ kingfisher Plant debris ~ bacteria -eprotozoa ~ Phytoplankron-eZoopankroneZooplankron mosquitoes ~ Nil some food chains are intertefe to form a food web. Some herbivores can feed on one plant. Similarly, the herbivores given can feed on different plants and may in turn be consumed by different carnivores. These decomposers are mainly bacteria and fungi. These organisms eat organic matter to die so as to cause depriation and damage and release nutrients for plants. They form a link between biotic and abiotic components. Pyramid Numbers Refers to the number of organisms in each stage of the trophy presented in the form of graphics and the form of the pyramid is obtained. The length of each bar is pulled proprietic to the number of organisms represented at that level. This is because of the herbivore feed on many green plants. One carnivorous also feeds many herbivores. In the forest the pyramid shape is not perfect. This is because very many small animals such as insects, rats and birds eat one tree. Pyramid Biomass This is a mass of manufacturers and consumers at every level of the graphically drawn trophy. Population Estimation Methods It is important to find or estimate the size of different populations in the habitat. Direct calculations or head counts involving each individual, does not always apply to all organisms. for example, it is impossible to directly calculate the number of grasshoppers in an area. Different methods of sample are used. Samples act as representative representatives the whole population. . The QuadratE Sample Method A Quadrate is square, made of woos/hard plastic metal. It can also be created on the ground using pegs, permanent colored ropes/inks, using meter rules or measuring tape. Its size is usually one square meter (1M2), in pastures. In wood or forest habitats it is usually larger, and can reach up to 20 m2 depending on specific species being investigated. The number of each species found in the quadrate is calculated and recorded. The number of organisms then calculated with, finding the average quadrate and multiplying it with the total area of the habitat. The number of quadrates and their position is determined by the type of vegetable studied. In pastures, quadrate frames can be randomly removed. In other forest habitats, random numbers that determine the locus where to set up quadrates are used. Transect Line Transect Line is a string or string stretched throughout the area where all the touched plants are calculated. It is tied to a pole or tent peg. It is especially useful where there are changes in populations lubricated through pastures, to forests to forest land. This method can also be used in studying changes in growth patterns in plants over a period of time. Transect Belts Two transects lines are set in parallel to each other to fold the strip through the habitat to be studied. The width is determined by the type of habitat, i.e. grass or forest and by the nature of the investigation. In pastures, it can be 0.5 m or 1 m. Sometimes it can be 20 meters or more especially when calculating large herbivores. The number of organisms in the belt is calculated and recorded. This recapitalist method is used for animals such as fish, rats, arthropods and birds. Animals are captured, tagged, calculated and released. For example, twelve grass can be caught with nets and marked using permanent ink. After sometimes, the same area is sampled again, that is, the beams are caught again. The amount captured during the second catch was recorded. The marked number is also recorded: Leave the numbers captured and marked as a. The total volume in the second catch is b. The number marked in the second catch is c. The total amount of grass in the area is T. The number T can be estimated using the following formula: Number number = Number amount = The following assumption is made: No migration, that is, no movement in and out of the study area. In fact, there is a distribution of organisms in the study area. There is a random distribution of the organism after the first catch. There are no births or deaths during the activity. After estimates, results can be used to show anyone of the following population characteristics: Density: Density is calculated by dividing the number of organisms by the size of the area studied. Frequency: Frequency is times that the species occurs in the area being studied. Percentage Protection: This is covered by a particular species. For example, the plant species given may include the whole. certain regions. In this case, the refinery is said to have 100% protection. Domination: This is a term used to describe the species that gives the most impression to others. The dominion may be in terms of high frequency or high coriander. Plant Adaptation to Various Habitat Organisms has developed structural features that allow them to live triumphantly in certain habitats. The vegetation under the main canopy is adjusted to the low intensity of light by having broad leaves. Xerophytes These are plants that grow in dry habitats, i.i. in deserts and deserts. They have adjustments to reduce transpiration levels to save water use. Others have water storage structures. Adjustments include: Reduction of leaf surface area by having leaves such as needles, swaying leaves and hitchhiking leaves during drought to reduce water loss or transpiration. Thick cuticles; epidermis consisting of several layers of cells; leaves covered with wax or resin to reduce depravity. Stomata drowned, creating a damp space still broadcast to reduce the water hole. Some, small stomata, on the lower epidermis to reduce water loss. Stomata are opened at night (reverse stomatal rhythms) to reduce water loss. Deep and extensive root system for water absorption. Construction of flat shoots and succulent wipes for water deposits e.g. Opuntia. Mesophytes It is an ordinary ground loji that grows in a well-prepared habitat. They don't have a typical adaptation. Stomata can be found on both the upper and lower leaf surfaces for a deft exchange of gas and transpiration. However, those found in always wet places such as tropical rainforests, have characteristics that increase transpiration. These herbs are called hygrophytes. The leaves are wide to increase the surface area for transpiration and thin to ensure a short distance for carbon (IV) oxides to reach photosynthesis cells and for light penetrating. Stomata are raised above the epidermis to increase transpiration levels. They have large hairs or byhathodes that drive water into the atmosphere of tepu. This phenomenon is called guttation. Hydrophytes water loji (Loji Air) is not drowning, kemuncucuhi or floating. Sunken herbs The leaves have an epidermis with very thin walls and fine cuticles. They don't have stomata. Water is edifying from the typical glands and burrows at the end. Other adjustments include the following: The presence of airspace and large forwards (aerenchyma) for gas exchange and storage. Some plants have filament leaves For surface area for the absorption of light salts, gases and minerals. Some plants are rootless tubers, therefore the support provided by water. Mineral salts and water are absorbed by all plant surfaces. In some plants, stems and leaves are covered with wax to reduce water absorption. e.g. Ceratophyllum and Elodea sp. Floating Floating Their structure is the same as mesophytes. The leaves are extensive to increase the surface area for water loss. They have more stomata at the top of the surface than on lower surfaces to increase water loss levels. An example is Pistia sp. (saltuce water), Salvinia and Nymphea. Halophytes (salt plants) These are herbs that grow in salt marshes and on the beach. They have root cells that focus on salt and allow them to fetch water by osmosis. They have salt glands that repel salt. Fruits have large aerenchymatous tissues for air storage that make them floating. Some have shiny leaves to reduce water loss. Mangrove vegetation has roots that spread horizontally, and sends several branches into the air. These air roots are known as respiratory roots or pneumatophores. They have a lenticel-Iike opening called pneumatothodes where gas exchange takes place. Effects of Pollution on Humans and Other Organismal Pollution This is the introduction of foreign materials, toxic compounds and excessive nutrients or energy to the surrounding nature in dangerous conditions. Any material is called a polluter. The effects and control of pollution in the Air, Water and Soil Industry and urbanization are the main causes of pollution. As humans exploit natural sources the delicate balance in the biosphere is disrupted. The disorder led to the creation of a state that did not betray humans and other organisms. Pollutants Motor vehicle sources release carbon (II) oxides, sulfur (IV) oxides, and nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Agricultural chemicals, steel and perosak poison. Refinery, metal manufacturing and processing industry. They release toxic materials and gases as well as synthetics that can't be upgraded. They release pepejal or titisan toxic substances such as arsenic, beryllium, plumbum and cadmium. Radioactive residue: Leaks from nuclear stations and test sites release radioactive elements such as strontium-90 that can eventually reach humans through the food chain. The rest of the domestic and kumbahan are released raw into the body of water. Oil spills from accidents at sea and oil tanker leaks as well as from drilling and storage and off-shore processing. Water Pollution. In most cases, chex, pical remnants of the industry are released into the water. Toxic chemicals such as mercury can be eaten by organisms. Insect poisons such as DDT, and ?lampai eventually get into the water and contaminate it. Oils and washing materials also pollute water. More nitrates and phosphates from kumbahan and steel cause the growth of algae and bacteria in water. It's called eutrophication. As a result insufficient oxygen caused the death of the captives in the water. Air pollution: Smoke from industry and contains toxic chemicals such as carbon (II) oxides, carbon (IV) oxides, sulfur (IV) oxides and nitrogen oxides. When sulfur (IV) (IV) and nitrogen oxide dissolved in the rain, they fell as acid rain. The accumulation of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere causes the inffural light to be confined in the atmosphere, the earth's temperature rises. This is called the effect of greenhouses. Carbon particles in smoke coat leaves plants and prevent the exchange of gases and photosynthesis. Particles also form smog in the air. Lead compounds are from vehicle exhaust pipes. All this has a negative impact on human beings and the environment. Soil/soil pollution: Plastics and other man-made materials are biologically inconceived i.e. they do not act by micro-organisms. Scrap metal and slabs from mines also pollute the soil. Failure to restore mines and quarries also pollutes the soil. The effects of Pollution to Humans and other organisms of chemical pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, fluoride, mercorice and lead cause physiological and metabolic disorders to domestic humans and animals. Some hydrokarbons as well as radioactive pollutants act as mutagens (causing mutations) and carcinogens induce cancer. Radioactive pollutants such as strontium, caesium and lithium are inducted into the surface of the body and cause harm to bone marrow and thyroid glands. Infectious diseases such as cholera spread through water contaminated with sewage. Heat pollution results in the death of some fish due to decreased oxygen in the water. Oil spills interfere with the normal functioning of the coastal ecosystem. Birds that eat fish die due to the inability to fly as feathers get protection by oil. Molluscs and crustaceans on the brushed beach are also dead. Air Pollution Control Lead-free gasoline consumption and low sulfur diesel in vehicles. Fuel consumption without smoke e.g. electricity or solar. Residual gas filtration to remove dangerous gases. Liquid dissolution of waste gas. In Kenya, factories are subject to a comprehensive audit to ensure that they do not pollute the environment. Factories should be pushed away from residential areas. Decrease the volume or sound intensity. Use of ear muffs. The vehicle exhaust system should be installed with catalytic oxidizer. Frequent vehicle services to ensure complete fuel combustion. Wastewater Pollution Treatment. Industrial waste treatment before being released into the water. Use of controlled amounts of agro-athleticism. Organic farming and biological control. Avoid spills of oils and other chemicals into the water. Good water management. Intense penalties for oil spills. Use of Pseudomonas bacteria that naturally feed the oils and break them down. Additional chalk soil pollution to the farm to overcome the effects of agrochimia. Recycling of solid waste. Compact and compact solid waste fighting. Use of biodegradable substances and chemicals. Good land management to avoid land envy. Human Disease The term of the disease indicates any condition or disorder interfere with a steady state of the body. Health is a state of physical, mental and emotional well-being in the internal environment of the body. Some reasons diseases caused by the inclusion of pathogens and parasites. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Parasites are organisms that live in or in the body of other organisms. Vectors are animals that carry pathogens from people to others. Most are ectoparasites that transmit diseases because they feed. Cholera Bacterial Disease Causes agents of vibrio cholerae bacteria. Delivery - It is spread through water and food contaminated by human feces containing bacteria. Bacteria produce strong toxins, enterotoxins, which cause inflammation of the intestine wall that leads to: severe diarrhea that leads to excessive loss of water from the body. Abdominal pain Vomit Dehydration can cause death. Adequate prevention and hygiene control such as proper treatment of water purification sewage and disposal of human stools. Public and personal hygiene such as washing hands before eating and washing fruits and vegetables, boiling drinking water. Vaccination carriers should be identified, isolated and treated during outbreaks. Use of appropriate antibiotic treatments. Corrects the loss of fluid by injecting fluid or by the administration of oral rehydration solutions. Typhoid Agent Causes The Disease due to typhi Salmonella. Delivery is through contaminated water and food. It is also transmitted by 'e.g. food, e.g. oysters, muscles and shell fish. Symptoms of Muscle Fever Headache Spots on the stem of body diarrhea In severe cases of mental confusion can cause and death. Prevention of boiling drinking water. Proper sewage treatnient. Proper disposal of stools, otherwise pumped using deep hole toilets. Note personal hygiene e.g. washing your hands before meals. Wash fruits and vegetables. Use of appropriate antibiotic treatments. Protozoa Malaria Malaria is caused by protozoan plasmodium. The most common species of plasmodium are P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. rnalariae and P. ovale with varying degrees of severity. Delivery Is by female anopheles fattening as it gets a blood dish. Symptoms of headache, sweating, chills, high temperatures (40-41 0C) shivering and joint pain. The stomach becomes soft due to the destruction of red blood cells by parasites. Prevention of Destroying breeding venues for fattens by cleaning the bushes and draining progressive water. Kill mosquito larvae by spraying water surfaces with oil. Use insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes Sleeping under mosquito nets. Take preventive medication. Treatment Using appropriate anti-malarial drugs. Amoebic dysentry (Amoebiasis) Causes of the disease are caused by Histolytica Entamoeba. Parasites live in the intestinal tract but can sometimes spread to the liver. Their delivery is delivered via contaminated water and food especially salads. Symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhea. causes intestinal tract ulcers, which lead to diarrhea. Proper prevention and control of human stool disposal. Boiling water previously Personal hygiene e.g. washing your hands before meals. Wash the vegetables and steam especially salads and fruits before eating. Treatment of people infected with appropriate medications. Parasite Disease Ascaris lumbricoides Ascaris lumbricoides live in the intestines of a man or pig, feeding on the host's digested feed. The body of the worms is slapped at both ends. Women are longer than men. How to delivery the host eats food contaminated with eggs, embryonic worms hatch in the intestine. The embryo worm then gets into the intestinal blood vessels. They are brought in the bloodstream to the heart and then into the lungs. As they travel through the bloodstream, they grow in size. After sometimes, the cough coughs out of the airways and into the oesophagus. They then swallowed up, eventually finding their way into the intestuse where they grew into mature worms. The ascaris effect of lumbricoides on the Parasite host eats food on the host's digested food. This results in malnutrition especially in children. If worms are too much, they can suppress the intestines and interfere with digestion. Worms sometimes stroll along the extra channels and can pass through the nose or mouth. In this way, they interfere with breathing and can cause serious illnesses. Larvae can cause severe internal bleeding as they penetrate the walls of intestine. Female adaptation features lay as many as 25 million eggs. This ensures the continuity of the species. Eggs are covered by protective poles that prevent them from dehydration. Adult worms tolerate low concentrations of oxygen. Have a mouth part to suck food and other liquids in the intestin. Have a thick or pellickel fleas to protect it from the digestive enzymes produced by the host. Self Hygiene Control and Prevention e.g. washing hands before meals. Proper disposal of stools. Washing fruits and vegetables. Deworm treatment uses medicines ?-helmintics immediately. Schistosoma Schistosoma or bilharzia worms are flat worms, parasites in humans and freshwater snails. (Biomphalaria and Bulinus.) Snails act as middle hosts. Schistosomiasis Transmission Mode is also known as bilharsiasis due to several species of genus schistosoma. Schistosoma haematobium ?infects urinary system especially bladder S. japonicum and S. mansoni both infect the intestines. Schistosoma haemotobium is common in East Africa where irrigation is practiced and where slowly moving port snail freshwater flows. It is spread through water pollution by stools and urine from infected people. Embryos (miracidium) that hatch water penetrates into the snails of the Biompharahia and Bulinus species. In the body of snails, miracidium undergoes development and various fisions to rediae. Rediae is released into the water and develops to form a cercariae that infects humans through: Drinking deep Wading water Bathe in snail-dyed water. Cercaria burns through the skin and enters the blood vessels. Effects on the host of inflammation of the tissue where the egg gives up. Ulcers where the eggs are calculated. Eggs block small arteries in the lungs leading to less blood hardening. The body turns blue - a condition known as cyanosis. If an egg surrenders in the heart or brain, formed wounds can lead to death. Bleeding occurs because worms burn into the blood vessels (stools or urine have blood). Pain and difficulty in passing urine. Nausea and vomiting. When the egg surrender in the liver ulcer causes liver cirrhosis. Death eventually occurred. The adaptation characteristics of women have a thin body and fit into small blood vessels to lay eggs. Eggs are able to burn from the blood vessels into the shade of intestine. Many eggs are laid out to ensure the survival of parasites. Most cercariae is produced by snails. Miracidia and cercariae larvae have a gland that craves verbal enzymes that soften tissues to allow penetration to host. The man has a gynecophoric canal that leads women to keep the eggs fertilized before being spilled. Have an innonnation for attachments. Prevention and Control Drain all staged water Boils drinking water. Do not wake up exposed feet in the water. Wear long rubber boots and gloves (for those working in paddy fields). Eliminate snails, by spraying with mollusks. Report to the doctor earlier when symptoms appear for early treatment. Ecological Practical Activities are reviewed best outside. Students identify habitats in or near school mingling, for example flower beds. The quadrat method is used. The observation and recording of various animals as well as their eating habits are done. Birds that consume plants or arthropods in the area studied are observed through habitat observations at various times throughout the day. Food chains are built for example green plants ~ caterpillar ~ lizards and more involving all organisms in the area. The number of animals in 1 m2 is calculated directly or estimated like a small arthropod such as black ants. The number of plants is easily calculated and recorded and the ratio of consumers to the manufacturer is calculated. It will be noted that in terms of numbers where invertebrates are involved, there are many users of one plant. Several other quadrates were established and studied and average calculated. Adaptation to habitat Hydrophytes Specimen hydrophytes for example water lies are observed. Students should take note of the underdeved root system and extensive leaves. The distribution of stomata on the surface of the leaves is studied through the microscopy or by appearing leaves in hot water and calculating the growing number of bubbles. Mesophytes common plants for example hibiscus nuts and zebrina can be studied. Leaf size and stomata distributions were studied. Xerophytes specimens include Euphorbia, cactus and waste that are easily available. The root system as in the waste is referred to as shallow but wide. It will be noted that the remnants have current meat and trunk leaves and Euphorbia has meat stems but the leaves are reduced to a small hair-like structure. Comparison of root nodules from lush and poor soil nodules Are swinging at the roots of the bean plants. Soil fertility determines the number of root nodes per plant. Nut plants were best used in the study. One plot can be sedated while another is not. Similar seeds are planted in the two plots. Plants are shrugged off when fully mature (vegetables) i.e. at any time after flowering and before drying. The number of nobleles per plant is calculated. The average for each plot is calculated. It is worth noting that nuts from lush soils have more and large nodules than those planted in the poor soil. Population Estimates using the Method of Sample The number of organisms of both manufacturers and various users is recorded in each area studied for example using quadrates. The total habitat area studied was measured. The average number of organisms per quadrate (1 m2) is calculated after establishing as many quadrates as needed to adequately close the area. The total population of the organism is calculated from the area. Abiotic environments are studied in sampled areas. The air temperature of the soil surface temperature was taken and recorded. This is best done at different times of the day, that is, the morning and evening afternoon. Any variations are mentioned. pH soil is measured using pH distilled water to make a solution. Litmus paper can be used to indicate if the soil is addicted or alkali, but pH or meter paper provides a more accurate pH value. Moisture is measured using anhydrous blue cobalt chloride paper that gives the sheer clue to the level of humidity. Windsock used to give an indication of the direction of the wind. Since all abiotic factors recorded observations are made to find the link between the behavior of the organism and environmental factors for example: Temperature affects the behavior of animals. Wind direction will affect the growth of plants. The level of humidity determines the type, number and distribution of the organism in an area. Breeding in Plants and The Introduction of Animals The process in which mature individuals produce offspring is called breeding. Breeding is a characteristic of all living organisms and prevents the extinction of the species. There are two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves a combination of male and female games to form a zygote. Asexual breeding does not involve the game. Cell Cells Section of Cell Division begins with a nuctine division. In the nucleus are some thread-like structures called chromosomes, which occur in a couple known as homologous chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a gene that determines the characteristics of the organism. The cells in each organism contain several specific chromosomes. There are two types of cell parts: This Mitosis occurs in all body cells to bring about an increase in the number of cells, causing the growth and The number of chromosomes in a girl's cells remains the same as in the mother's cell. Meiosis This type of cell part occurs in the breeding organ (gonads) to produce the game. The number of chromosomes in the game is half that in the mother's cell. Mitosis Mitosis is divided into four main ranks. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. These cell-part ratings take place in a smooth and ongoing pattern. Interphase The term interphase is used to describe the state of the nucleus when the cell is only about to divide. At this time the following applies: Replication of genetic material so that girls' cells will have the same number of chromosomes as stem cells. Division of cell organelles such as myitochondria, ribosomes and sentrioles. The energy for cell division is synthesized and stored in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) to guide the cell through the entire process. During. interphase, the following observations can be made: Chromosomes are seen while, thinly, the structure is like a concussion thread. The nucleus and nucleus membranes are intact. Prophase Chromosomes are shortened and thickened. Each chromosome seen consists of a pair of chromats accompanied at one time called centromere. Centrioles (in an captive cell) are intersed and move to the opposite pole of the cell. The nucleus center is referred to as an equation. Spindle fibers begin to form, and connect the sentriole pairs to the opposite pole. The nucleus and the nuclear membrane are destroyed and lost. Metaphase Spindle gentian long. In the cells of the captives they are attached to sentrioles on both poles. Each chromosome moves to the equation plane and is mounted on a rotating fiber by centimeters. Chromatids begin to separate at centromere. Anaphase Chromatids are detached and emigrate to opposing poles due to the shortening of rotating fibers. Chromatics become chromosomes. In the cell of the haiwan, the cell membrane begins to constet. The Telophase of the Cell is divided into two. In an interview cell it applies through a basket of cell membranes. In plant cells, it is caused by the prelation of cellulose along the cell equation. (Formation of cell plates). The nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes. Chromosomes then become less different. Mitosis Importance It brings organismal growth: It brings asexual breeding. Ensure chromosomal numbers are maintained. Ensuring the chromosome constitution of the offspring is the same as that of the parents. Meiosis Meiosis involves two cell-part parents resulting in four girls' cells. Mother cells have diploid chromosome numbers. Four cells (gametes) have half the number of chromosomes (haploids) that exist in the mother's cell. In the first meiotic part there is a reduction in chromosomal numbers due to homologous chromosomes and not chromatics being side by side. Each part has four prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase ranks. Interphase As in the cell mitosis provides for This involves replication of chromosomes, organelles and building energy to be used during meiotic division. The first Meiotic part of Prophase I Homologous chromosomes is located side by side in the synaptic process forming pairs called bivalents. The chromosome is shortened and thickened by it becoming more visible. Chromosomes can become invisible to each other and chromatics may remain in contact with the eye called chiasmata (single chiasma). Chromatids stretch the chiasmata part to chromatid. Important genetic changes are usually the result. Metaphase I Spindle gentian is fully formed and attached to centromeres. Bivalents move to the spindles equation. Anaphase I Homologous Chromosomes are side by side and emigrate to opposite poles. It is carried by shortening the rotating fiber by it pulling the chromosome. The number of chromosomes on each pole is half the number in the mother's cell. Telophase I Cytoplasm divides to separate two girls' cells. The Second Meiotic Part Usually both girls' cells go to the short resting stage (interphase) but sometimes the chromosomes remain insculable and the girls' cells go on to the metaphase of the second meiotic division. The second meiotic part applies just as much as mitosis. Prophase II Each chromosome is seen as a pair of chromosomes. Form Spindle Metaphase II and attached to the chromomatic centromeres. Chromatids move to equations. Anaphase II Brother chromatics are different from each other then move to the opposite pole, pulled by a rotating gentian shortening. Telophase II Radas spins away. The nucleus reappears and a nuclear membrane is formed around each set of chromomatics. Chromatics become chromosomes. Cytoplasm divides and four female cells are formed. Each has a haploid chromosome number. The importance of Meiosis Meiosis brings the formation of a game containing half the number of chromosomes as stem cells. It helps restore the chromosomal diploid constitution in species at the plant. It brings a combination of new genes that lead to genetic variation in offspring. Asexual Breeding Asexual Breeding is the formation of a child of a single parent. Offspring is the same as parents. Types of asexual breeding. Fision in amoeba. Formation of spore in Rhizopus. Budding in yis. It involves the division of the parent's organism into two female cells. The nucleus first divides into two and then the cytoplasm separates into two fision duality also occurs in bacteria, Paramecium, Trypanosoma and Euglena. Spore formation in Rhizopus Rhizopus is a saprophytic splint that grows on various substrates such as bread, reput fruit or other organic matter that reputs. The body of vegetables is called mycelium which has many branched threads called hyphae. Hyphae flat called stolon. Hyphae enforce called Sporangiophore tips become to form sporangia, the bearing structure of the spore. Each sporangium contains many spores. As it matures and cooks, it turns black in color. When fully mature the walls of the sporangium break and release the sporra embedded by wind or insects. As the spores landed in damp substratum, they germinated and grew into new Rhizopus and started other generations. The formation of spore in ferns plant ferns is called sporophyte. At the bottom of the mature leaves are subtitle (Single: sorus) that bears the spores. Budding at Yeast Budding involves the formation of a protrusion called a bud from the organism's body. The buds separate from the master cell, in the yis budding occur so quickly and the first bud begins to form another bud before separation. Short chains or cell mass are formed. Sexual Reproduction in Plants In flowering plants, flowers are reproductive organs that are specific shoots consisting of modified stems and leaves. Parts such as trunks are pedicels and receptacle, while modified leaves form corolla and calyx. The typical flower structure consists of the following parts: Calyx consists of sepals. They include and protect the flowers when it is in the bud. Some flowers have an outdoor whorl made of sepal-like structures called epicalyx. Corolla consists of petals. Brightly coloured petals of insects - flowers of colonization. Androecium Is the male part of flowers. It consists of stamen. Each stamen consists of a filamen that ultimately has either. Inside is a flowering stud that contains consensus grains. Gynoecium (pistil) is the female part of the flower. It consists of one or more carapels. Each carpel consists of ovaries, le sty and stigma. The ovaries contain ovules that become seeded after fermentation. Monocarpous pistils have one carpet for example nuts. Polykarpous pistils have plenty of carpets. If the carpet is free, it is called apocarpous as in roses and Bryophyllum, In the disputed carpet it is called syncarpous as in Hibiscus. Complete flowers have all four parts of flowers. Ordinary flowers can be divided into two parts by any vertical part passing through the center. for example morning glory. Insert flowers can be divided into two interiors in only one aircraft for example crotalaria. Coninflation This is the transfer of consolidated cereals from either to the stigma. The type of self-conflating is the transfer of flower grain from one of the flowers to the same flower stigma. Cross-colonization is the transfer of flowering grain from one of the flowers to the stigma of different flowers, the same species. Consolidation agents Consolidation agents include wind, insects, birds and mammals. Insect pollination includes flour, butterflies and mosquitoes. Mechanism that prevents self-pollination stamens cooks early and cereal their flowers before the stigma, mature. This is called protandry for example in sunflowers. The stigma matures earlier and dry before the pangs release pollen pollen This is called protogyny and is common in grass. Self-inflicted or pollen cereals of incompatibility are sterile to the same flower stigma, for example in corn flowers. Shorter stamen than pistils. Liver fatigue in flowering Cereal Plants contains generative nucleus and tube nucleus. When the flowering cereal lands on the stigma, it absorbs nutrients and germinates form a container tube. This flowering tube grows through the style of pushing the way between the cells. It gets fertility from these cells. The tube nuleus occupies a position at the growing end of the flowering tube. The following generative nuleus behind the tube nuleus, and divides to form two male game nuleuses. The flower tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. When the flowering tube penetrates into the crushed ovule and the open burst flowering tubes leaves a clear way to nucleus the man. A male nuleus fussy with the nucyleus of egg cells to form a diploid zygote that develops into an embryo. Nukleus other men's games are fussy with poluble nuleuses to form a triploid nuclus that forms the main endosperm. This is called double entitlement. After the alteration of the following changes occurs in flowers: The integuration develops into a seed coat (testa). Zygote grew into an embryo. Triploid nuleus develops into endosperms. Ovul became seeded. The ovaries evolved into fruit. The ovarian

wall develops into a pericarp. Style, dry and fallen leave scars. Corolla, calyx and stamen dry and fall. In some persistent calyx. The formation of fruit development without infertile is called parthenocarpy for example as in pineapple and banana. Such fruits do not have seeds. The classification of fake fruits develops from other parts such as calyx, corolla and receptacle, for example apples and pineapple that develop from inflorescence. True fruits develop from ovaries, for example nuts (pods). True fruits can be divided into meat fruits or succulents for example berries and dried fruits and dried fruits. The dry one can be divided into dehiscent that splits open to unopened and unopened surfing seeds. The type of Fruit Placentation This is an ovule arrangement in the ovary. Marginal placement: Placenta appears as a ridge on the ovarian wall for example nuts. Parietal settlement: Placenta is on a ridge on the ovarian wall. Ovules are in it for example pawns. Axe placement: Placenta is in the centre. The ovaries are divided into several loculi. e.g. orange. Basic placement. Placenta is formed at the base of the ovaries e.g. sunflowers. Free Central placentation. Placenta is located in the center of the ovaries. There is no loculi for example in the primrose. The methods of fruits and seeds of dispersal of animal meat fruits are consumed by animals. Animals are attracted to fruits with bright colors, smells or the fact that it can be eaten. Seeds undamaged digestive tract and approved with stools. For example tomatoes and guavas. guavas. the seed has a hard and resistant kot seed. Others have fruits with grafts or spines attached to the fur of an animal or on clothing. Then the seeds are disaliated or fall themselves e.g. Bidens pilosa (Black Jek). The fruits of wind divers and seeds are small and light to be carried by air currents. Fruits that are capsules such as tobacco splits or have burrows at the top such as the Mexican poppy. The capsule is attached to the along the stem when the wind-shrouded seed is released and scattered. Some seeds have feathered or feather-like structures that increase their surface area so that they can be blown by the wind e.g. Sonchus. Others have wing-like structures such as Jacaranda and Nandi Flame. This connection increases the surface area of fruits and seeds so that they are carried by the wind. Water-roasting fruits such as coconuts have a spongy fibrous mescocarp to trap the air, trapped air makes light fruits and buoyant to float on the water. Plants such as water lilies produce seeds whose kot seeds trap air bubbles. Air bubbles make the seeds float on the water and are taken away. Kot pericarp and seeds are kalis water. The mechanism of self-dimming (explosion) It is seen in pods such as nuts and nuts. The pressure inside the pod forces it to open along a line of weaknesses removing seeds from the parent plant. Breeding in animal sexual breeding involves a combination of games. In the interview two individuals were involved, a man and a woman. A distinctive organ known as a gonad produces a game. In the test men produce sperm while in ovari women produce ovari. The combination of the men's game and the women's game to form a zygote is called nursing. There are two types of nursing. Outer and deep. Examples of external fertillsation in the amfbia apply in water. The male releases the female's sperm and hitches a ride on the egg as it is stretched. Eggs are protected by a slippery jelly-like material that provides protection. Many eggs are released to increase the chances of survival. This deep expertise applies in reptiles, birds and mammals. Nursing applies in women's bodies. Fewer eggs are produced because there is a higher chance of concentration as sperm is released into a woman's body. Breeding in the Human Structure of the female breeding system The female breeding system consists of the following: Ovari Are two longitude cream colored structures found at the bottom of the abdomen below the kidneys. Oviducts. They produce ova. Is there a tube that runs the ova produced by the ovari into the uterus. Oviduk's 2015-2015 growth rate is at the top of the oviduk. Rahim Rahim is a hollow muscle organ found in the lower part of the abdomen. The embryo develops in the uterus. The inner lining endometrium nutrients are available Embryos. The embryo is implanted into the walls of the deep uterus - the endometrium that fertilizes the embryo. The thick muscles of the uterus help in separation. Cervix has a muscle ring that separates the uterus from the faraj. It is He the opening to the vagina of the uterus is a tube that is opened out and it acts as a copulatory canal and birth through the vulva. The structure of the male breeding system The male breeding system consists of the following: Testicles: Each testicle is a jisim of many sheathes called semniferous tubules. Each is included in a roller bag that hangs between the thighs. This ensures that sperm is maintained at a lower temperature than the main body. Tukul separa scattered Seminifera tulung layer consists of active division cells that give rise to sperm. Among the half are interstitial cells that produce male hormones called androgens such as testosterone. Seminiferous tubules unite to form an epididymis, which is a shearing tube in which sperm is stored for a while. Vas deferens (sperm canal) are tubes in which sperm is carried from the testicles to the urethra. Seminal vesicles produce alkaline secret that nourishes spermatozoa. Your prostate gland produces alkaline secret to neutralize the thaw of the faraj. Cowpers glands Seep alkaline thaw. All these liquids together with semen form spermatozoa. Urethra Is a long tube in which semen is run during copulation. He also removed urine from the urine. The testicles are intro-mittent organs inserted into the faraj during copulation. The expertise in the Captive Care is filled by copulation in which the upright testicles are inserted into the faraj. This leads to semen ejaculation. Sperm swims through the female pubic canal to the top of the oviduct. The head of the sperm penetrates the acrosome_ the oral enzyme dissolves the egg membrane. Tails abandoned. The sperm of the fius nucleus with the ovum and zygote is formed. The belching membrane forms around the zygote which prevents other sperm from penetrating the zygote. Implantation: After zygote activation begins to divide the mitoticaly as it moves towards the uterus. It becomes embedded in the uterine wall of a process called implantation. At this time the zygote was a hollow ball of cells called blastst or embryos. In the womb the embryo awakens the villi that project into the uterus for later efficacy of villi and endometrium develop into placenta. Embryo membrane embryo membrane develops around the embryo. The outer membrane is a match that forms a chorionic villi that provides nutrients to the embryo. Amnion surrounds the embryo forming a cavity containing the thaw in which the embryo is located. The amniotic cavity is filled with amniotic thaw. This thaw acts as a shock absorber and protects the fetus against mechanical injuries. It also restores the temperature. Villi corionic, allantois together with the endometrium of the placenta. This embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord that has veins and umbilical arteries. Mother in the space where it flows in the lacuna chamber and surrounds the capillaries of the veins and umbilical arteries. Umbilical chords increase in length when the embryo develops. The role of the mother's blood protection placenta and fetal blood is not mixed. This ensures that pathogens and toxins from the mother's blood do not reach the fetus. Placenta allows the mother's antibodies to pass into the fetus, providing the fetus with immunity. Placenta feeding facilitates the transfer of nutrients from the mother's blood to the fetus. Excretion Placenta facilitates the disposal of nitrogenous residue from fetal blood to the mother's blood. The exchange of oxygen gas from the mother's blood seeps into the fetus' blood while carbon (IV) oxide from fetal blood seeps into the mother's blood. Placenta hormone production produces progesterone and estrogen. The period of pregnancy Between concept and birth is called pregnancy. In pregnancy man takes nine months (40 weeks). Embryos distinguish into tissues and organs in this period. Weeks 1 through 3: Zygote divides to form an explosion. Implantation in effect. Three layers of germs form the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. The nervous system begins to form. Weeks 4 to 7: Development of circulating and digestive systems. Subsequent development of the nervous system, the formation of deria organs, all the main internal organs are awakened. In week 5, the heart rate begins. Weeks 8 to 24: All organs are well awakened including sex organs. Hair, fingers and fingernails grow. The fetus moves and the eyelids are open. Week 25- 30: The awakened fetus fully responds to touch and noise and moves intently. The head is sleering and facing down willingly for the birth. Weeks 31-40: Fetus increases in size. Birth prevails. Reproductive Hormones Secondary Sexual Characteristics of Male Testerone are the main androgens that stimulate the development of secondary sexual traits. Extend the shoulders. Delve into the sound due to larynx enlargement. Hair in the pubic area, armpits and chin area. The testicles and testicles raise and produce sperm. The body becomes more masculine. Enlargement of mammary gland women. Hair grows around the pubic area and armpits. Hip dilation. Ovari matured and began to produce ova. Menstruation begins. Estrogen triggers setanding secondary sexual traits. Sexual infection (STl) Menstrual Cycle It is characterized by the release of blood flakes and tissues (menses) from the uterus every 28 days. This is caused by endometrial fragments that occurred when the progesterone level fell and the girl began to menstruate. The hormone stimulates the follicle (FSH) causing the Graafian follicle to wake up and also stimulating the ovari to release estrogen. The hormone estrogen triggers setanding secondary sexual traits. The luteinising hormone (L.H) causes mature ovum to be released from the Graafian follicle - a process called ovulation. After the hormone progesterone ovulation is produced. After The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland begins to seep into the follicle stimulating hormone (FS. H) which causes the Graafian follicle to develop in the ovari. It also stimulates vari tissue to seep estrogen. Estrogen brings healing and healing of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) that has been destroyed during menstruation. Estrogen stage stimulates pituitary gland to produce (Luteinising Hormone (L.H). This hormone makes the Graafian follicles mature to release the ovum into the oviduct funnel, a process called ovulation. After releasing the ovum, graafian follicles turn into a yellow body called the corpus luteum. The luteinising hormone stimulates the luteum corpus to seep into a hormone called progesterone that stimulates thickening and vascularization of the endometrium. It provides the uterine wall for burst implantation. If the preparation applies, the progesterone level increases and thus prevents FSH from stimulating the maturity of other Graafian follicles. If the preparation does not apply, the corpus luteum is destroyed and the progesterone stage drops. Endometrium, sloughs off and menstruation apply. Advantages of Asexual breeding Good quality of parents is maintained in offspring without variation. New individuals produce asexually mature faster. The process does not rely on external factors that may fail such as inflorescences. New individuals get food from parents and so can survive for a while in inappropriate circumstances. There is no spread of individuals who are not senono that can lead to the burning of children. Took a shorter period and led to rapid colonization. Disadvantages of asexual breeding The new Child can bring unthimmable qualities from parents. Offspring may not be able to withstand changes in the state of the environment. Faster maturity can lead to tight and fierce competition. Reduce the power and vigour of successive generations as well. The advantages of sexual breeding lead to variety. Reasonable variations often indicate hybrid vigour. High individual ability to change the state of the environment. Variation provides the basis for evolutionary change. The combined disadvantage of sexual breeding is difficult if two individuals are isolated. Some variations may have un coveted qualities. Population growth is slowing. Practical Activities Examine the mitosis level Approximately 2 mm at the end of the onion menthol root is cut and placed on a microscope slaid. Excrement e.g. aceto-orcein is added and the root end is enlivened using scapel. The closing slip is added and the observation is made. Different mitosis ratings can be observed. Checking the meiosis rating Of buds that are not open Tradescantia obtained The anther removed and put on a microscope slaid. Some titisan hydrochloonic acid and acetic-orcein impurities are added. The closing slip is placed on the lap. Pressing the cover slip gives a thin skuasy, which is noticed bottom down Microscope. Different levels of meiosis are observed. To observe the structure of the Rhizopus Rhizopus plant on moist bread left below the appropriate temperature A piece of moist bread is placed on the petri? dishes or included in a plastic bag and observes every day for four days. Under the low-power microscope of sporangia and stolon can be observed. Checking the spores in the ferns sori Getting fern plants. Detach fronds from plants and observes the bottom-of-the-hand side using hand lenses to see the chocolate spots raised - sori. Open the sorus to observe the sporangia. Inspect insects and wind-colonizing flowers Obtaining insect flowers e.g. crotalaria, hibiscus/Ipomea, Solanum, incunum. Note the smell, color and nectar guide. Descriptions of calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are made. Get flowers pollinated wmd for example,' corn, star grass, sugar cane,Kikuyu grass. Pay attention to glumes, spiders and spikelets. Check one floret, and identify androecium and gynoecium. Classify the fruits Getting different fruits - oranges, mangoes, corn, custard oil, nut pods, black jacks. Pay attention to fruits, classify them into succulent, dry-dehiscent or indecent. Dismantling orange and mango fruit. Create a helping part. Observe the cut and draw surfaces and label the parts. Note that the fruit is expressed into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Get a bean pod. Open the pod and pay attention to exposed surfaces. Draw and label the parts. Note that the walls of the fruit are not distinguished. Fruit and seed divers Get the fruits of animal divers, such as oranges, tomatoes, black jacks, sodomy apples. Identify the way each one is adapted to the spreader by animals. Get fruits/seeds dispersing wind for example Nandi fire, Jacaranda Sonchus, cotton seeds, Tecoma. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Development Concepts Growth and Growth are characteristics of all living organisms. Most multicellular organisms begin life as a single cell and gradually develop into complex organisms with many cells. This involves multiplying cells through the cell distribution process. The increase in quantitative size of this organism is referred to as growth. For growth occurs the following aspects of the organism cells assimilate nutrients therefore increasing massively. Cell division (mitosis) leads to an increase in the number of cells. Cell expansion that leads to an enlargement of the increase in the number and size of the organism. Therefore, it is possible to measure growth using parameters such as mass, volume, length, height, surface area. On the other hand development is a qualitative aspect of growth involving cell differentiation and the formation of various tissues in the body so that tissues can carry out typical functions. It is impossible to quantify the quantitative aspects of development. Therefore, development can be assessed terms of increased complexity of organisms e.g. development flowers and roots. Mature humans have millions of cells in the body yet he starts from; a single cell, that is, the eggs are fertilizer. During sexual reproduction of fuse ovum with sperm forms zygote. Zygote divides quickly without increasing size, first to 2, 4, 8, 16,32, 64 and so on, until it forms a massive cell called morula. This first cell part is called cart. Morula develops a berongga part, causing a structure known as blastula (blast). Then, explosive cells distinguish into the inner layer (endoderm) and the outer layer (ectoderm). The embryonic implants two layers into the walls of the uterus and, by obtaining nutrients from the mother's blood, begin to grow and grow. BlastocoeJ Fertilised 2-cell egg stage 4 cell {zygote) Morula Blastula (cell mass) As embryos grow and grow, changes occur in cell size and cell type. The changes are referred to as growth and development. These processes lead to morphological and physiological changes in developing young organisms that result in more complex and efficient adults. In the early stages, all embryonic cells look the same, but when the development process continues the cells begins to distinguish and become specific into different tissues to perform different functions. Growth involves synthesis of new materials and protoplasms. This requires food supplies, oxygen, water, warmth and how to remove waste products. In animals, growth occurs throughout the body but the rates vary in different parts of the body and at different times. However, in plants, the growth and cell parts mostly occur at the tip of the root just behind the root cap and the rod apex. This is referred to as the growth of acenques leading to prolonging plants. However, plants not only grow up and down but also. This growth led to an increase in width (lit) by the activity of goat cells. The increase in bilir was termed as secondary growth. The 1-State Study Question of the two main differences between growth and growth measurement can be estimated by measuring some aspects of the organism such as height, weight, volume and length within the stipulated time frame. Measurements gained if plotted against time results become a growth curve. The following Question 2 results were obtained from the proliferating study and early growth of corn. Cereals are insements in the soil at home with and.at two-day interval. Samples were taken, the oven was dry and weighed. See the table . Embryonic dry mass graph plots against time after sowing. Explain the shape of the graph. For most organisms when measurements are plotted they give an S-shaped graph called sigmoid curves as in figures. Figure 4.2: TSie's sigmoid growth knot This pattern is due to the fact that growth tends to be at first and then speed up and eventually slow down as adult size Therefore, the sigmoid curve can be divided into four parts. Lagging phase (slow growth) This is the initial phase in which a slight growth occurs. The growth rate is slow due to various factors namely: (i) The number of dividing cells is slight. (ii) The cells have not yet been adjusted by environmental factors. Exponential phase (log phase) This is the second phase in which growth is rapid or revenue rapidly. During this phase the growth rate is at maximum level and at any time, the growth rate is protrasciated by the amount of materials or the number of cells the organism already has. This rapid growth is due to: (i) Increase in the number of dividing cells,2-4-8-16-32-64 following the development of geometry, (ii) Cells that have been coordinated with the new environment, (iii) Food and other factors are not limited by that the cells do not compete for resources, (iv) Cell rise rates become higher than the mortality rate. The Decelerating Phase This is the third phase in which growth becomes limited as a result of the effects of several internal or external factors, or the interaction of both. Slow growth is due to: (i) The fact that most cells are fully distinguished. (ii) Lack of ceilings still dividing, (iii) Environmental factors (external and internal) such as: lack of oxygen and nutrients due to high demand by high demand by increasing number of cells. space is limited due to the high number of cells. the accumulation of metabolic waste products inhibits growth. limited acquisition of carbon (IV) oxide as in the case of plants. Plateau Phase (painter) Phase This is a phase that indicates the period in which overall growth has been recorded and the parameters under consideration remain ongoing. This is due to the fact that: Cell division rates are equivalent to cell mortality rates. Almost all cells and tissues are fully treated, therefore there is no longer an increase in the number of cells. The nature of the curves during this phase may vary depending on the nature of the parameters, species and trainees! Factors. In some cases, the curve continues to rise slightly until the organism dies like the case of monochotyledonous plants, male invertebrates, fish and certain reptiles. indicates positive growth. In some cases, the curve flatns changes in growth while other growth curves can be tailed indicating a period of negative growth rates. These characteristic negative patterns of many mammals include humans and are a sign of physical senseses associated with increased age. Study Question 3 What happens during the following; logs and phases of growth smokers? However, the sigmoid curve is not to all organisms, for example, arthropods. I am an insect, growth occurs in the interval changes plotted against time., different curves obtained. This is a growth curve See figure 43, Alternate growth in insects is due to the fact that they have exoskeletons and therefore growth may be only when it is busting. spill. the grasp process is known as mold or expedition. However, cell division continues to occur during the inter-moult phase but the expansion of tissue is limited by uninterrupted exoskeletons. Practical Activity I: Project To measure the growth of Plot/small box plant requirements, meter rules and bean seeds (or green grams, nuts, corn), Procedures Place some ground in a box or prepare a small plot outside the laboratory. Plant some seeds in the box and place in a suitable place outside the laboratory (or plant a seed in your plot). Seed water every day. Pay attention to the boxes/plots every day and note the day the seeds appear out of the ground. .Measure the height of the shoot from the ground level until the end of the shoot. Repeat this with four other seeds. Work out the average height of shoots for today. Repeat the procedure 5 every three days for at least three weeks. Record the results in the table form. On the same seed measures the length of one leaves from each of the five seeds (from the apex of the leaves to itsattachment on the trunk). Calculate the average length of the leaves and records in the table. Plot graph the height of the shoot against time. On the same axis the long plot of leaves against time. Compare two drawn graphs. Plant growth and development Phase growth and major development in plants begins with the proliferate of mature seeds. The seeds are two types depending on the number of cotyledons or embryo leaves. Practical activity 2 To investigate structural differences between monochyledonous and contracted seeds - Time in Gamb day. 4.3: The growth curve shows a long increase in the need for short grassroots seeds and corn grains that have soaked overnight. Scalp blades or razors, ioin solutions, Petri dishes and hand lenses. Procedures Using scalp or razors make longitant parts (LS) both nut seeds and corn grains. Note LS specimens use hand lenses. Note any structural differences between specimens. Draw LS per specimen and label. Puta drops ione solution on the cut surface of both specimens. Pay attention to any differences in color with ioin on the surface of both specimens. On your diagram shows the distribution of dirt. Account for differences in color distribution with ioin in two specimens. The structure of the common seeds consists of a seed coat that includes embryos. Seed coats are external covers that, in most seeds, consist of two layers, an external testa and one inner, leg. Thick testa; tegmen are transparent membrane tissue. Both layers protecting seed bacteria, fungi and other organisms whk can damage them. There are scars called hilurn on one side of the seed. This is the point at which the seeds have attached seed trunks or funicles. Near one end of 1 hilum is a small pore, a micropyle. This allows water and air into embryos, embryos are made one or two leavi seeds or cotyledons, plumule (embryo sh ( and radicle (embryo roots). Radicle is the opposite of the micropyle. In some swelling cocktail seeds because they contain foods stored for growing plumule and radicle. Such seeds, called non-endospermic seeds. In the cases of ots, the seeds have their food stored in: endosperm. Such seeds are called endospermic seeds. Seeds with one cotyk are referred to as their monochyledonous wi who have two referred to dicotyledons. This is the main basis of i differentiation between the two large plants, monocotyledonae aa dicotyledonae. Dormancy in dry seed Embiyo, fully developed usually through a rest period after a period of cooking. Currently the seeds do all the life processes (physiology) very slowly and use a little food. This is the hostel period. Despite all the favorable environmental conditions for proliferation available to seeds during this period of dormant, the seeds will not germinate. This is due to the fact that seed embryos may have to undergo further development before proliferating. Some seeds can sprout immediately after being_shed from the master plant (for example most tropical plants) while others must go through a period of dormant, lasting for weeks, months or even years before the seeds can germinate. Dormancy provides seeds with enough time for dispersal so they can germinate in a suitable environment. It also allows seeds to survive during adverse environmental conditions without spending their food reserves. Embryos have time to develop until good conditions can be found for example water availability. The Factors That Cause Dormant Embryos may not have been fully developed. The presence of chemical inhibitors prevents proliferation in seeds such as abscisic acid. Very low concentrations of hormones for example gibberellins and enzymes reduce the ability of seeds to germinate. Hard and non-transparent seed coats prevent air and water entry in some seeds for example wattle. In some seeds the absence of certain light wavelengths makes them remain inactive for example in some lettuce plants. Freezing seeds during winter lowers the activity of their enzymes that cause them to be inactive. How to Break Dormancy When the embryos mature then seed embryos can break the dormant and germinate. The increase in hormonal concentrations e.g. cytokinins and gibberellins stimulates germination. Environmental factors are encouraging such as water, oxygen and suitable temperature. Some light wavelengths triggered the production of hormones such as gibberellins that led to breaking the dormant. Scars that weaken the testa are needed before the seeds with a hard seed coat can sprout. This is achieved naturally by bacteria and fungi or by going through the intestines of animals. In agriculture the seeds some plants are weakened by boiling, roasting and cracking for example wattle. Seeds Proliferates Processes where seeds are seeds into the seeds is known as proliferating. It refers to all the changes that occur when the seed becomes seeded. At the beginning of the proliferating water is inducted into the seeds through the micropyle in a process known as imbision and causes the seeds to swell. The cells of cotyledons become murky and active. They started using water to dissolve and break down food ingredients stored inside cotyledons. Soluble foods are transported to plumule and growing radicle. The pulse grows into shoots while the radicalisation grows into roots. Radicals emerge from the seeds through the micropyle, breaking the seed coat as it does so. The Conditions Required for Proliferating Seeds can easily be destroyed by bad conditions such as excess heat, cold or animals. Seeds need certain conditions to germinate and grow. Some of these conditions are external, for example water, oxygen and appropriate temperature while others are internal such as enzymes, hormones and the viability of the seeds themselves. Un germinated seed water contains very little water. Without seed water cannot germinate. Water activates the enzyme and provides a medium for acting enzymes and breaks down food stored into soluble form. Hydrollys water and dissolve food ingredients and is also a medium of transportation of dissolved food ingredients through various cells to a growing region of radicalisation and plumule. Moreover, the water softens the seed coat which can then break and facilitate the appearance of radiation. Oxygen-sprouted seeds require energy for cell division and growth. This energy is derived from the oxidation of food ingredients stored in seeds through breathing thus making oxygen an important factor in the proliferating seeds. Seeds in water-flipped soils or seeds buried deep into the soil will not sprout due to lack of oxygen. Most seed temperatures require appropriate temperatures before they can germinate. The seeds will not sprout below 0?C or above 47? C. The optimal temperature for germinated seeds is 30?C. At higher temperatures the protoplasme is killed and the enzyme in the seeds is unorthodomized. At very low temperatures the enzyme becomes inactive. Therefore, protoplasme and enzymes work well within the optimal temperature range. The proliferating rate increases with temperatures to reach optimal levels. This varies from plant to plant. Enzymes enzymes play an important role during the proliferate in subsequent fractions and oxidation of food. Foods are stored in seeds in the form of carbohydrates, fats and proteins that are in no match form. Insoluble foods are converted into soluble forms by enzymes. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose by diastase enzymes, fats into fatty acids and glycerol by cockroaches, and proteins into amino acids by protease. Enzymes are also required for conversion of hydrolysis products to tissues New. Hormones Some hormones play an important role in the proliferation since their as a stimulant of growth. These include gibberellins and cytokinins. These hormones also overcome the effects of germination inhibitors. Viability Only seeds whose embryos are alive and healthy will be able to sprout and grow. Seeds stored for long periods usually lose their viability due to the destruction of their food reserves and the destruction of their embryos by pests and diseases. Study Question 4 In the experiment to investigate the neat effects on the proliferates of seeds, ten bags each containing 60 beans were placed in water baths maintained at 85?C. After every two minutes the bags are removed and the seeds contained in them are planted. Germinating numbers have been recorded. The procedure used for nut seeds has been repeated for cow seeds. The results are as shown in table 4.2, (a)Using the appropriate scale and on the same axis, attracting time graphs in hot water against the number of seeds that germinate for each plant. Use a cloudy axis for vertical time and axis for germinated seeds. Explain why the ability of nut seeds to germinate decreases with exposure time to heat. Explain why the ability of cow seeds to germinate improves with exposure time to heat. Practical activity 3 To investigate the conditions necessary for the proliferation requirements of cotton wool seeds, seeds, water, six under-fiat flasks, 2 corks, 2 test tubes, blotting paper, incubator, refrigerator, thermometer, pyrogallic acid and sodium hydroxide. Procedure > Prepare three set-ups as shown in figure 4.5. Let the preparation stand for five days. Record all visible changes that have occurred in the flasks hi per set? in the form of a table as shown in Question 5 Study Which conditions are being investigated in setting up I, II and III? For each preparation explains the results obtained. What is the role of flask B in each set-up? Proliferating Type Proliferating Properties vary in different seeds. During the proliferates cotyledons can be carried on the ground surface. This type of proliferate is called epigeal proliferate. If during the proliferates cotyledons remain underground the proliferating type is known as hypogeal. Prepare 1 Set up Fig. 4.5: Preparation to investigate the conditions needed for proliferation of Germination Epigeals During the proliferation of nut seeds, radicle grows out through the micropyle. It grows down into the ground as the main roots from which other roots arise. The embryo section between cotyledon and radicle is called hypocotyl. This section curves and pushes upwards through the soil protecting the tip of the fine shoot. The hypocotyls then straighten and elongately bring with him both coteledons that turn green and leafy. They started producing food for growing seeds. The pulse lay eggs between two coteledons, begins to grow the first de-leaf leaves that began to secrete food. Hyopgeal Germination In corn, the endosperm provides food to the developing embryo. Developing. along with the protective cover (c(?/eorfci2a) grows from the seeds. Epicotyl is part of the embryo between cotyledon and plumule. Epicotyl elongates and the plumule grows from the coleoptile and forms the leaves of the first leaf. Seeds are now starting to produce their own food and endosperm soon mocks. The kind of proliferate in which cotyledon remains underground is known as hypogeal proliferate. Practical activity 4 To investigate the proliferating requirements of epigeals and hipogeals of Tin or boxes, soil, water, corn grains and bean seeds. Procedure Put the same amount of soil into two containers labelled A and B. In A, grow some corn grains. In B, plant some nut seeds. The water seeds and keeps sift every day until they germinate. Place your set-up on the lab bench. Pay attention every day for proliferating. On the first day the seeds appear from the ground, pay attention to them carefully with respect to the ground levels. Carefully uproot one or two seeds from each set. Note and draw a seedle from each set of Label parts and specify the ground level on your diagram. On the fifth day since the appearance, again the uproot of the other seeds. Observe and draw. Specify the ground level on your diagram. Monitor the differences between the two types of proliferates studied. Major growth and Secondary Regions of plant growth are found in local areas called meristem as indicated by A meristem is a bunch of homeless cells in plants capable of continuous division of mythical cells. The main meristem in flowering plants is found at the ends of the shoots and roots, in young leaves, at the base of the node between, and in Figure 4.7(a) and (b): The longitching part of the root tip and the apex Fig. 4.7 (c) and (d): The part of the trunk and root of the vascular zone of cambium and cork he merisems at the end of the shoots and roots are known as apikal meristem and are responsible for major growth. Meristem kambium is responsible for secondary growth. Major growth In Key Growth occurs at the root end and shoot due to the mercemic activity of the firecrackers. The meristem comes from embryonic tissues. In this growth there are three distinctive regions, a cell division region, cell ejpngarion and eel] differentiation. See figure 4.7. Cell division regipn is an active area of dividing meristematic cells. These cells have a thin cell wall, compact cytoplasm and no vacuum. In the cell-extending region, the cells become enlarged to their maximum size by stretching their walls. Vacuums begin to form and enlarge. In the differentiation region ceH cells reach their permanent size, having a large vacuum and thick watt cells. Cells also distinguish into tissues dedicated to specific functions. Major growth caused an increase in the length of shoots and roots. Study Questions;:Mgure;4-S indkate cells in different areas of the meristem. Nudeus -Cytoplasm Fig. 4.8 Rearrange them into three regions: Cell division zone. Cell extending zone.; -, Cell angling zone. (jb) Name the specific tissue formed in the tl zone of the cell presentation. The seeds are left growing for sometimes (about 24 hours or overnight) and then disc signs are checked. When the distance between consecutive disc marks is measured, it is found that some signs of the first disk, especially between the 2nd and 31nd marks above the root end have increased significantly. This suggests that growth has occurred in the region just behind the root end. The difference between the length of each new interval and the initial interval of 2 mm provides an increase in that interval period during that time period. From this the growth rate of the root region can be calculated. See figure 4.9.M Practical Activity 5 To determine the growth region in the roots of the Bean sprouted Requirements with a radicalisation of about 1cm in length, cork, pin, carrier or gas jar, water, Indian ink, inflatable paper or filter paper, markers and commanders marked in mm. Using markers and payers makes a 2mm light ink mark besides the root length. See figure 4.10(a). Create a marked root drawing. Pin the seeds to the cork and place in a whisk containing little water. See figure 4.10(b). Leave it overnight. Remove the seeds and check the disc marks. Measures the distance between consecutive disk marks and records. Make a welllabeled seed drawing at the end of the experiment and compare it to the painting. seeds at the beginning of the experiment. Question 7 Study What parts of radicle have signs of ink moving further? Give an explanation for your answers in (a) above. What is the long increase in each interval? Working on secondary growth rates of secondary growth of secondary roots resulted in increased width or circumference due to goat activity. In secondary growth of new tissue is formed by vascular goats and goat cork. In monocotyledons plants there are no goatium cells in the vascular package. The growth of diameter is due to the enlargement of the main cells. Secondary growth incomplic pjants begins with the division of vascular gombium to produce new goat cells between vascular packages. This forms a constant kambium ring. These sheium cells divide to form new cells added to older ones. The kambium cells have now become meristematic. New cells produced to the exterior of the cambium distinguish to be secondary phloem and those to the inner side distinguish to be secondary xylem. More Xylem formed from phloem. Theambium between the faces of a/ so pieces of orTparenchymatous cells that form secondary medullary rays as seen in rajah 4.11 (a), (b) and (c). Due to an increase in the number of secondary tissues, pressure is intense on the outer cells of the stem. This results in strain and rupture of epidermal cells. To replace the outer layer of the stem protector, a new band of kambium cells is formed in the cortex. These cells, called cork cambium orphellogen come from cortical cells. Kambium cork divides to produce new cells on both sides. The cells in the inside of the cocium's ambium distinguish into the secondary cortex and those produced on the outside become cork cells. Cork cells die with thick walls. Their walls become oversized with a water kalis material called suberin. The cork cells increase in numbers and become the bark. This prevents water loss, infection from scabs and damage from insects. The corky skin is also fireproof and with it acts as a thickening layer. The skin usually cannot be circulated to water and respiratory gases. Periodically the cork cells, instead of being tightly wrapped, they form a loose jisim. This jisim is known as Jenticel. Lenticles allows For Rajah 4.12: Entrants through lenticel Secondary growth rates in stems are different with seasoning changes. During the rainy season, xylem and tracheid vessels are formed in large numbers. These cells are large, have thin walls and wood has a light texture. In the dry season, xylem and trancheids are formed in small numbers. They are small, thick walls and their wood has a dark texture. This leads to the construction of two separate layers in a secondary xylem formed m a year, called the annual ring. See King 4.13. It is possible to determine the basic age by counting the number of annual rings. In addition, climate change in past years can be inferred from the size of the ring. Secondary primary filoem Cambium ring Medullary Ray Pith Primary xylem Cortex Fig. 4.13: Cork Annual Ring The role of growth hormone in plant hormones is a chemical produced in very small amounts in plant bodies, and plays a very important role in controlling plant growth and development. Most growth hormone is produced at the end of the shoots and transported down to the roots. The end of the root produces a very small quarti of hormones. There are many types of plant hormones and a well-known group is auxins. Asid acetic Indoie (IAA) is one of the most famous auxin. Auxins are produced on tips shoots and roots. The maximum effect on plant growth applies when auxin is produced simultaneously with other plant hormones e.g. gibberellins. The maximum growth response in the stem requires more IAA than the root tn. Auxins is known to have a variety of effects growth and development of vegetation. They stimulate cell division and lengthening of cells in the stem and root that lead to the primary primer Auxins causes a tropical response, which is the growth response of plants as a result of external stimuli acting from the given direction. Instead the IAA stimulates the growth of extreme roots that develop from the trunk rather than the main root tbe. Cuttings can be encouraged to develop root with the help of the IAA. If the tip of the cut of the stick is dyed into the IAA, the roots trigger faster. The IAA is also used to induce parthenocarpy. This is the growth of the ovaries into fruit without care. This is usually u^ed by horticulturalists to bring good fruit crops especially pineapple. Auxins is known. to prevent the development of ancillary branches from side buds. Therefore, they increase the practicing of lighter. During secondary growth auxins Plays an important role by starting cell division in the goat and differentiation of these gombium cells into vascular tissues. Auxins in relation to other plant hormones such as cytokinins prompts the formation of callus tissue that causes wound healing. When the concentration of auxins falls at the factory, it promotes the formation of an abscision layer that leads to the fall of the leaves. Synthetic Auxin, a 2.4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2.4-D) prompted distorted growth and excessive breathing that led to the plant's death. Therefore, it can be used as a selected killer of marriage. Gibberellinsare is another important group of plant growth hormones. GibbereHins is a mixture of compounds and has a very high impact on growth. The most important in growth is gibberellic acid. Gibbereilins are distinguished from auxins by their stimulation of fast cell parts and prolongation of cells in certain plant dwarf varieties. Dwarf conditions are thought to be caused by a lack of gibberellins due to genetic deficiencies. Gibberellins is important in the formation of fruits. They drive ovarian growth into fruit after espionage. They also prompted parthenocarpy. Gibberellins also encouraged the formation of side branches from the side buds and broke the dormant in the bud. This is common in simple plant species whose buds become sedentary in winter. In addition, this hormone also prevents triggering challenging roots from cliches of stems, it inhibits the formation of abscission layers thus reducing the fall of leaves. Gibberellins also broke the dormant of the seeds by activating enzymes involved in the breakdown of food ingredients during proliferation. Cytokanins are also known as cinetin, is a growth material that promotes the growth of plants when they interact with auxins. In the presence of auxins, they stimulate cell division therein carrying the growth of roots, leaves and buds. They also stimulate the formation of callus tissue in plants. Callus tissue is used in the repair of wounds in damaged plant parts. Cytokinins flower and dormant seed in several plant species. They also promote the formation of roots that spread from the stem and stimulate the development of lateral shoots in the shoots. When in cytokinins high density encourages Leaf enlargement but in low concentration they promote the senescence of leaves and therefore the leaves fall. Ethylene is a growth substance produced in plants in the form of gases. Its main effect in plants is that it causes cooking and falling fruits. This is widely used in horticultural farms in cuisine and fruit oil uves. It stimulates the formation of an abscision layer that leads to the fall of the leaves, prompting the thickening of the trunk by promoting cell division and differentiation in the mercy of the goat. But it prevents the prolongation of the trunk. Ethylene promotes the breakup of seed dormant in some seeds and the formation of flowers mostly in pineapple. Abscisic acid is a plant hormone whose effect is inhibitor. It prevents the proliferation of seeds that lead to seed dormant, preventing triggering buds from the trunk and retardation of the prolonged stem. In high concentrations, abscisic acid causes stomata closure. This effect is important because it allows plants to reduce water loss. It also promotes the fall of leaves and fruits. Another hormone, florigen is produced in plants where it promotes flowering. Apical domination Although auxins, especially the IAA are important stems and root prolongation, they are known to have a profound impact on the growth and development aspects of other plants. If the apikal buds that usually contain high concentrations of auxins are removed, it is observed that more lateral buds lower the sprout stick, producing many branches. This suggests that high concentrations of auxins have an inhibitor effect!' to trigger lateral buds and therefore inhibit the growth of many branches. This forms the basis of agricultural catalysts where more branches are needed for increased harvests especially in crops such as coffee and tea. The lateral bud failure to develop with the presence of apikal buds is due to the displacement of auxins from apex shoots down higher concentrations than promoting lateral bud development. Practical Activity 6 To investigate the mastery of the apikal in the need for Tomato Seed plants growing in tins. The terminal bud cut procedure from 3 seeds in a tin, leaving another seed with an intact terminal bud, Let the seeds continue to grow for another five days. Question 8 study lists the differences noticed between the two seed groups? Explain how the differences occur. From your observations, explain the basis for tea and groaning coffee. Growth and Development in Animals In higher animals, most cells except nerve cells, retain their divisive power. Therefore, there is a constant breakdown and cell replacement. Animal cells undergo rapid cell division and cell differentiation but, unlike plant cells, they undergo very few cells. In most animals growth occurs through: their lives until they die. This type of growth is called continued growth. Arthropods for example insects show rapid growth shortly after mold with periods when no growth increases occur. This is called Growth. Insects exhibit two types of reproductive processes. In some insects, the ova in t female is hired by male frc spermatozoa. This is a typical example of sexy reproduction, common in mother ai butterflies. In other insects such as black aphids and green t, eggs are usually products without being fertilizer --- insects. This type of asexual reproduction is referred to; parthenogenesis. Growth and Development in Insects The majority of insects lay eggs hatching larvae int, which is an insolent, normal stage! quite different to adults in morpholog and behavior. Depending on the larvae insec species is referred to as grub, maggot or caterpillar. Generally larv eats a lot, grows quickly and sheds cuticl several times until reaching the full size of the t< becoming a pupa. Pupa is an inactive level, not feeding where the breakdown of extensivity and re-organization of body tissue occurs, ultimately provoking an adult form of imago o. Such changes, callec metamorphosis, occur in butterflies, bees, wasps and flies. Insects passing through this stage, namely egg-larvae-pupa, into imago/adult in their studies are said to undergo complete metamorphosis. Development in Housefly (Examples of complete metamorphosis) When household eggs are laid out, it measures about 1mm in length. Eggs are placed in clusters between 100 to 150. Larvae hatching from eggs grow and feeding into decaying things. After several moults and increased sizes, Jarva reached about 1cm in length. This takes about 5 days. After this, the larvae turn into pupa put in a pupal case called dead puparium, from which adults fly later emerged. After the appearance, adult tgkes about two weeks of feeding and growing to achieve sexual maturity, i.e. men can get married and women get laying eggs. Figure 4.14 summarizes the zero life cycle of the house. The incomplete development of Metamorphosis in some insects such as grasshoppers and cockroaches, involves hatching eggs into the nymph that e!cie!y resemble adults in every form, except for the size and lack of sexual maturity. Pupa case Adults pushed out against the case For the insect to reach adults, stage, they underwent a series of moults. before acquiring a full adult size and achieving sexual maturity. The insect is said to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. Development in cockroa (Examples of incomplete metamorphosis) Cockroer produces eggs included in the case in groups between 10 - 15. The case known as ootheca consists of cfaitm. Ootheca is usually deposited in dark and warm damp places, for example in furniture cracks or crevices on the walls. It takes about a month before nymphs without small wings appear. Feed nymphs, and moult about times with a nymphal period that lasts approximately 16 days for all adult structures to be fully awakened. The Role of Hormones in Insect Metamorphosis In Insect Insects controlled by hormones. Hormones are produced in three glands namely; Neurosecretory cells in brain ganglia, a pair of allata corpora (single Corpus allatum) located in the bath segment and prothoracic glands in the thorax. During the larval stages of ailata corpora insects produce juvenile hormones, this leads to the formation of larvale curriculum., therefore mold does not go beyond the larval stage. When the larvae mature, the allatum corpus is disintegrates- Currently neurosecretory cells stimulate the prothoracic glands to produce mold hormones (ecdysone). Ecdysone is responsible for mold in insects leading to laying adult curriculum. 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