Review Sheet #1
Name________________________________________Per.___________Date_______________
Midterm Review Sheet
Introduction and Scientific Research Methods: Modules 1-8
Background terms from the book intro:
- Words of the day: empiricism, structuralism, functionalist, humanistic psychology, natural selection, nature-nurture, levels of analysis, hindsight bias, confirmation bias, sample size, false consensus, overconfidence, illusory correlation, correlation does not imply causation, wording effect
- Famous people: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, John Watson, BF Skinner
- Psychology v. Psychiatry
- Types of research: Basic, Applied, Clinical
- Types of descriptive research: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlation
- The major psychological perspectives (to explain human behavior):
o Biological
o Behavioral
o Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic
o Cognitive
o Socio-cultural
o Neuroscience
The Scientific Method
- Understand the difference between correlation research methods (shows only predictability) such as the survey method and the scientific method (shows cause and effect).
- Thesis and Hypothesis
o Independent variable (what is tested) v. Dependent variable (what is measured)
o Experimental v. Control groups (experimental is tested – receives the ID v. the control group; basis of comparison; no treatment or a placebo)
o Controls (to reduce bias): Possibilities include random selection of all subjects, random assignment to groups, double-blind, replication, and a placebo (if a drug experiment).
This methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias” and “overconfidence”
- Ethical considerations in psychological research: Guidelines to the APA requirements
o Must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterwards and confidentiality of the results
- The use of inferential statistics: used to measure the dependent variable and as an objective comparison of the experimental and control groups.
o Central tendencies: the mean, median and mode
o The bell curve and standard deviations and range
o Correlation coefficients: -1.0 to 1.0 to show statistical relationships between variables
o Percentile ranks: to show the percentages below a given ranking
Neurobiology: Modules 9-15
- Neurotransmissions and the nervous systems: (neurotransmission is often nicknamed the “all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical release of neurotransmitters)
o Axons, dendrites, synaptic gap and myelin sheath
o Action potential-depolarization, repolarization, refractory period, threshold, reuptake
o Specific neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, endorphins, serotonin, dopamine), inhibitory vs. excitatory
o Types of neurons: Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent) [remember SAME], and Interneurons
o Agonists and antagonists
o Structure of the nervous systems: central, peripheral, autonomic, somatic, sympathetic (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic (calming) [remember SYMpathy for one in crisis; PARAchute to calm down slowly]
- The endocrine system: Involves our major glands such as the adrenal and pituitary glands and hormones such as adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen and norepinephrine.
- The Brain: The three general region are the Brainstem, the Limbic System and the Cerebral Cortex.
o The brainstem includes the medulla (heartbeat and breathing), the reticular formation (arousal center), the cerebellum (balance) and the thalamus (the “sensory switchboard”)
o The limbic system includes the hippocampus (memory), the hypothalamus (directs the endocrine system/”pleasure center”), and the amygdala (emotions such as anger and aggression)
o The cerebral cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s information processing center where neurons communicate
o plasticityy
- The four lobes include the: occipital (vision), parietal (sensory cortex), temporal (hearing) and frontal (personality and judgments – ex. Phinneas Gage)
- The two hemispheres include the:
o Right: spatial and creative
o Left: language and logical math reasoning
o Broca’s area – making speech (left frontal)
o Wernicke’s areas – comprehending speech (left temporal)
- Brain imaging techniques:
o Some show brain anatomy: CAT scans (x-ray pictures), MRIs (measures magnetic activity)
o Some show brain activity: EEGs (measures electrical impulses), PET scans (measures glucose consumption)
o Some show both: fMRI (uses magnetic field and measures oxygen levels)
Memory: Modules 31-33
- Effortful vs. Automatic processing
- flashbulb memories
- Short-term vs. long-term memory vs. sensory memory.
- Repression
- context effects
- Misinformation effect and source amnesia
- Retrograde and anterograde amnesia
Encoding
- Mnemonic devices (peg word, method of loci, chunking, imagery, hierarchies)
- Spacing effect
- Serial position effect (Primacy effect, Recency effect)
Storage
- Iconic and echoic memories
- Implicit (procedural) vs. explicit (declarative and episodic) memories
- Role of the hippocampus and cerebellum
- Long-term potentiation
Retrieval
- Proactive and retroactive interference
- Ebinghaus curve
Sensation and Perception: Modules 16-21
Sensation:
- Bottom-up vs. top-down processing
- Signal detection theory, Absolute threshold, difference threshold (jnd), Weber’s law
- Sensory adaptation
- transduction
- Vision
o Parts of the eye: pupil, lens, cornea, retina (rods and cones), fovea, bi-polar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve
o Wavelength = hue (color); Amplitude = brightness
o Young and Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory (three types of cones-red, blue, green)
o Opponent Process Theory, afterimages
o Blind spot, Feature detectors (Hubel and Weisel), Accommodation (lens)
- Hearing
o Parts of the ear: pinna, eardrum, auditory canal, bones of the middle ear, cochlea, hair cells, auditory nerve
o Wavelength = pitch; Amplitude = volume
o Place theory and Frequency theory
o Sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss
- Taste – Salty, Sour, Bitter, Sweet, Umami
- Smell – olfactory
- Touch – Gate control theory of pain, small and large nerve fibers, substance P
- Equilibrium/ Vestibular sense –semicircular canals
- Kinesthesis, proprioceptors
Perception:
- Selective attention, Gestalt, Figure-ground, Perceptual set, Visual capture
- Phi phenomenon, stroboscopic effect
- Constancy (size, shape, color, brightness)
- Binocular cues (retinal disparity, convergence)
- Monocular cues (relative size, relative height, texture gradient, interposition, linear perspective)
- Perceptual grouping (similarity, closure, connectedness, proximity, continuity
- ESP (telepathy, clairvoyance, pre-cognition) all related to parapsychology
States of Consciousness: Modules 22-25
Sleep and Dreams:
- Circadian rhythms
- Alpha waves, delta waves, circadian rhythm, manifest/latent dream content
- Sleep Cycle (length of one sleep cycle)
o Stage 1
o Stage 2
o Stage 3
o Stage 4
o REM Sleep (paradoxical)
- Sleep disorders (Night terrors, Narcolepsy, Insomnia, Sleep Apnea)
- Dream theories (wish fulfillment, information processing, activation synthesis)
- Latent vs. manifest content
- REM rebound
- Hypnosis
- Age regression, hidden observer, posthypnotic suggestions
- Drugs
o Depressants
o Stimulants
o Hallucinogens
- Near-Death experiences (Monism v. Dualism)
Learning: Modules 26-30
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):
• With CC you are making an association between something that does not normally illicit a response with something that normally/naturally elicits a response
• The key is that you are taking a behavior that normally does nothing and creating an association for it
• Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus = conditioned stimulus → conditioned response
• The neutral stimulus ALWAYS become the conditioned stimulus
• Extinction – when the association is no longer reinforced the connection dies out and the conditioned stimulus no longer produces a response
• Spontaneous recovery – the conditioned stimulus may reappear at any time
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner):
• While OC, the rewards or consequences after a behavior which is already being performed either strengthens or weakens the response
• Reinforcement ALWAYS strengthens the behavior and punishment weakens the behavior
• Positive reinforcement +
o Something the organism desires is added
o Better grades, more pay, candy to a little kid
• Negative reinforcement –
o Something unpleasant is taken away
o Electric shocks stop, grounding stops, using an umbrella in the rain
• Punishment decreases behavior
o Take away allowance, spanking, take away senior privileges
• Schedules of reinforcement:
o Variable ratio is the strongest form of reinforcement
• Variable is unknown
• Fixed is known
• Ratio is a number of behaviors
• Interval is an amount of time
Social Learning (Albert Bandura and others):
• Social learning states that we learn from imitation, social cues, and modeling
• Much of what we learn is through social instruction and not just associations or reinforcement
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence: Modules 34-36 and Modules 60-64
Thinking:
- Concepts, Prototypes
- Algorithms vs. Heuristics (Representativeness and Availability)
- Confirmation bias, memory bias
- Mental set, Functional fixedness
- Framing
Language:
- Phonemes and Morphemes
- Grammar, Semantics, and Syntax
- Stages of language development (babbling, one-word, two word (telegraphic)
- Linguistic relativity (Whorf)
- Skinner vs. Chomsky
Intelligence:
- Binet, Terman, Spearman, Sternberg, Gardiner
- IQ =
- Achievement tests (AP exams, chapter tests…) vs. Aptitude tests (SATs, IQ tests…)
- Good test design
o Standardization, Reliability, Validity (content validity vs. predictive validity)
- WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
- Special needs children
o Autism, Down’s Syndrome, Savant syndrome, Huntington’s Disease, PKU
- Factor Analysis
- “G” Factor (Spearman)
- Sternberg’s three intelligences
- Gardiner’s Multiple intelligences
- Emotional Intelligence
- Normal Curve and standard deviation (what % falls within 1, 2, and 3 SD’s of mean?)
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