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Assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach (pg 17)

TASK

• What does the following quote from John Watson (a behavioural psychologist) suggest about this approach? Do you agree with what he is saying?

TASK

• In the space below, write down three or four personality traits about yourself. For example your hobbies, things you are good at, your likes or dislikes etc.

The behaviourist approach assumes that we are born neutral, with no inherent personality. It is the environment which shapes who you are. For example, if you are sporty, it may be because you grew up in a family that was interested in sport. If you love to read, it is because you grew up surrounded by books.

TASK

• Look back at the traits you wrote about yourself. Can you explain these personality traits through your environment? If not, why not, and what alternative explanation can you come up with?

Assumption 1: The role of the environment

Assumption 2: The importance of observable events in research

The common principles in learning

In behaviourist psychology there are three main types of learning; classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. The first two, we will look at as part of the assumptions. Social learning theory will be covered in the next topic. While these three different types of learning are different from each other, there are some common principles which underline much of the behaviourist theories.

TASK

Read the section on page 23-24 and match the term to the definition

|Stimulus | |A stimulus-response unit. |

|Response | | |

|Association | |Any external event which we respond to |

| | | |

|Behaviour | |A behaviour produced in response to a stimulus |

| | |Connecting a stimulus with a particular response |

Assumption 3: Behaviour can be explained though classical conditioning (pg 17)

This is learning by ____________________.

(A good way to remember this is ________________________________________________________)

TASK

• If you have any pets (cats, dogs, fish, birds etc) do they ever show any behaviour which suggests they know they are about to get fed/walked etc? If you don’t have any pets, ask someone who does

Classical conditioning occurs when an association is made between a previously unlearned response, and a neutral stimulus. If the two are paired enough times, eventually the neutral stimulus will produce the unlearned response.

For example, feeling scared and feeling pain when someone hits you is an unconditioned response (no-one has taught you this). If every time an Elvis song is played someone hits you, you might start feeling scared when you hear Elvis singing! This is because you have learned to associate Elvis with pain. Elvis has gone from being a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. Your fear response to Elvis is now a conditioned response.

EVIDENCE for classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1946, pictured left) was the first person to investigate classical conditioning. He discovered it by accident when performing unrelated experiments on dogs. He noticed that the dogs would start salivating as soon as the lab assistant would walk in the room to feed them.

Watch the following video:

(In this experiment Pavlov used a metronome, but in other books and videos, it may be a bell. Don’t worry, as it is the same experiment!)

Before Conditioning

Food ---> Salivation

The dog is hungry, the dog sees the food which is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog salivates. This is a reflex action and therefore it is an unconditioned response (UCR).

Metronome ---> No salivation

When a metronome which is a neutral stimulus (NS) is played, it produces no response in the dog.

During conditioning

Metronome with Food ---> Salivation

Before we present the food (UCS) to the dog we play the metronome (NS). The dog salivates at the sight of the food (UCR). We repeat this action (metronome then food) at several meals.

After conditioning

Metronome ---> Salivation

The metronome now produces the response of salivation, even when no food is present. The metronome has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dog’s salivation in response to the metronome is now a conditioned response (CR).

Learning has taken place as the dog produces a new behaviour (salivation at the sound of the metronome)

This procedure can be written as below:

Before conditioning

UCS UCR

(Food) (Salivation)

NS No Response

(Metronome)

During conditioning

UCS NS UCR

(Food) (Metronome) (Salivation)

After conditioning

CS CR

(Metronome) (Salivation)

TASK

• Look back the pet behaviour you wrote down on the page 2. Does classical conditioning provide a good explanation? Can you think of any of your own behaviour which can be explained in this way?

More EVIDENCE for classical conditioning: Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated classical conditioning on a little boy known as Little Albert.

TASK

• fill in the gaps below with the words in the boxes below.

The aim of the study was to establish whether emotional responses such as _______ could be _________________.

Albert B.’s mother was a nurse in a children’s hospital. Albert was described as normal and “healthy from birth”. When he was about ________ months old , his reactions to various stimuli where tested- a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers and a hammer striking a four-foot steel bar just behind his head. Only the last of these frightened him. The other stimuli were_____________, because they did not produce fear.

When Albert was just eleven months old, the ________ and the hammer striking the bar were presented together: as Albert reached out to stroke the animal, Watson crept behind the baby and brought the hammer crashing down on the steel bar! This occurred seven times in total over the next seven weeks. By this time, the rat on its own frightened Albert. Watson & Rayner had succeeded in deliberately producing in a baby a __________ of rats.

This fear response transferred spontaneously to the rabbit, the dog, the sealskin fur coat, cotton wool, Watson’s hair and a Santa Claus mask, showing __________________________. But it did not generalise to Albert’s building blocks, or to the hair of two observers which demonstrates ________________________.

Five days after conditioning, the fear produced by the rat persisted. After ten days it was “much less marked”, but it was still evident one month later.

TASK

Using the equation as above, complete the equations below to show the conditioning that occurred in the Little Albert Experiment

Before conditioning

UCS UCR

(Loud noise) (___________)

NS No Response

(_____________)

During conditioning

UCS NS UCR

(__________ (rat) (fear)

___________)

After conditioning

CS CR

(____________) (____________)

TASK

• Briefly outline the conditioning experiment we carried out in class.

TASK

• Using the type of equations on the previous page, explain the following scenario:

“You eat a banana and shortly afterwards you are sick. You are sick not because of the banana, but because you have a stomach bug; however, from now on the smell and taste of bananas makes you feel nauseous.”

Assumption 4: Behaviour can be explained though operant conditioning (pg 17)

Operant conditioning involves learning through ______________________. It is more voluntary than the learning seen in classical conditioning. The idea is that when people behave in a particular way and are rewarded for it, they will repeat it. If they are punished for the behaviour, they will stop doing it! It is different from classical conditioning because the consequence comes after the response (rather than the stimulus coming before the response).

TASK

• How have you been rewarded or punished this week?

TASK

• A few more key terms to know. Read the section on page 26, and insert the key terms with the definition, and give an example. The key terms are all in bold in the textbook

|Term |Description |Example |

| |Anything which has the effect of increasing the | |

| |likelihood of the behaviour being repeated | |

| |Where something desirable is given in order that| |

| |a behaviour will be repeated | |

| |Where something undesirable is taken away in | |

| |order that a behaviour will be repeated | |

| |Anything which has the effect of decreasing the | |

| |likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. | |

| |Where something undesirable is given in order | |

| |that a behaviour will not be repeated | |

| |Where something desirable is taken away in order| |

| |that a behaviour will not be repeated | |

If you find it a bit confusing trying to remember all of the terms, just remember the following

• Reinforcement increases behaviour

• Punishment decreases behaviour

• Positive is where something is given

• Negative is where something is taken away

EVIDENCE for operant conditioning: Much of the research in this area was done by BF Skinner (left). He performed many experiments with animals such as rats and pigeons. Behaviourists carry out a lot of research on animals as they assume that what applies to animals can be generalised to humans. Also, much of the research into conditioning could not be carried out on humans for ethical and practical reasons.

The Skinner box contained a lever for an animal such as a rat or pigeon to press for food to be delivered. It also had a speaker and lights that could be used to trigger a behaviour and a shock generator was connected to the floor to deliver an electric shock in response to a behaviour. The idea behind the Skinner box was to create an environment in which the experimenter had complete control over everything the animal inside experienced. By altering the environment, desired behaviour could be conditioned in the animal.

For example, if the experimenter set up the box so that when the rat pressed the lever, a food pellet was dispensed, the rat might accidently tap the lever and receive food. However it would not take long before the rat’s behaviour changed, and they pressed the lever more. This would be positive reinforcement. If however, after this learning, we changed the rules so that food would only be dispensed when a red light came on, the rat would learn that pressing the lever when there was no red light on would not lead to food. Again their behaviour would change and the rat would only press the lever when the light was on.

Skinner was able to condition some impressive behaviour in pigeons using a Skinner box. Can pigeons read? or play ping pong?

TASK

• Which of the terms in the table above relate to the scenarios below?

1. Tina breaks her mum’s expensive vase, and so is not allowed to go out with her friends.

___________________________________

2. Adam is praised by his teacher for working hard. In future he continues to work hard.

___________________________________

3. Kate steals some cookies from the cookie jar and is spanked.

___________________________________

4. Freddy eats all of his vegetables at dinner, and so does not have to do the washing up.

___________________________________

TASK

• Think of a way that you are rewarded and punished, for example at school, at home or generally in society. Using the key terms on page 6, explain how this is intended to alter your behaviour. How successful is this method?

Exam Focus: A Model Answer

1a: Outline two assumptions of the behaviourist approach (4)

For this question, you need to decide which of the key assumptions you are going to talk about:

1. The role of the environment

2. The importance of observable events in research

3. Classical conditioning

4. Operant conditioning

5. Social learning theory (SLT in general, but not applied to aggression)

You will notice that the amount you are required to write in this answer is quite small. We have covered much more in this section that you will actually need. However, things learned in this section will come in useful later on.

In the answer below the two assumptions talked about are classical and operant conditioning.

This answer would gain the full 4 marks. Note how the answer refers to how the approach explains behaviour. Pavlov is mentioned but only in brief detail to highlight the concept being discussed. The tone of the answer is academic with correct terms used (positive reinforcement etc). The assumptions are stated and described briefly, but no evaluation is given, as the question does not ask for it.

In an exam, you would have roughly 5 minutes to answer a question such as this.

TASK

• Using the answer above as a guide (as well as the “How to answer exam questions” handout), write an answer to the following question using two of the assumptions that have not been used above (classical and operant conditioning).

o 1a: Outline two assumptions of the behaviourist approach (4)

-----------------------

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-- doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

John Watson (1878-1958)

What is the “Tabula Rasa”?

What is “environmental determinism”?

What do behaviourists focus on?

The role of thoughts and emotions:

The equipment used by Pavlov



nine

rat

discrimination

phobia

fear

generalisation

conditioned

neutral

Going further...

• Have a go at making Pavlov’s Dog drool

o

• Come up with your own examples of classical conditioning using the correct terms.

• The following website has some great examples of classical conditioning that you can have a go at:

o

• How could classical conditioning be used in real life situations (such as a prison or a school) to alter someone’s behaviour and how ethical do you think it would be?

• If you would like to know more about Little Albert, either ask your teacher for a copy of the full text, or download it from the VLE.

• How ethical do you think the little Albert experiment was? Would this experiment be carried out today?

Going further...

• Try this quiz:

• YouTube has got lots of great videos of animal training using operant conditioning. Watch some, and see if you can tell what type of conditioning is being used.

• Can you think of any real life examples of operant conditioning?

• Could operant conditioning be used in unethical ways?

• Can you think of some problems with Skinner’s type of experiment?

•

One assumption of the behaviourist approach (BA) is that we learn through classical conditioning. This is based on the principle of association. Pavlov showed (through his research with dogs) that if two stimuli are presented at the same time (e.g. food and the sound of a bell) and this happens repeatedly, then they become associated with each other. Through this process, we can learn new responses to environmental stimuli, as the behaviourist approach says all behaviour is learned.

The BA says that we also learn through the consequences of our actions. This is known as operant conditioning. We learn through reinforcement and punishment (one increases the likelihood that behaviour will happen again, the other decreases it). Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is where we receive a reward for our behaviour, negative reinforcement is where we manage to avoid something unpleasant happening.

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