Section I: Basic Behavior-Analytic Skills

 Section I: Basic Behavior-Analytic SkillsA.Measurement A-01 Measure Frequency – Give an overview of the book, indicating what the focus of your book report will be. You can replace the picture on the right with a picture of the cover of the book. raw count of behavior-number of times a specific behavior occurs in some period of time. Should be used as a measure of behavior only when time and opportunity are constant-may not provide enough infoEvent Recording: -wide variety of procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a bx occurs-can use wrist counters, hand tally digital counters, wrist and shoestring counters, etcConsiderations:-easy-bx must have discrete beginning and end-hard with high frequency-not accurate for bx that occur for extended timeA-02 Measure Rate: Frequency of behavior (count) during a certain unit of time. Most sensitive measure of behavior: most likely to show small changes, appropriate for measuring all free operants. Calculated by dividing total number of correct or erroneous responses by time. Measures are not comparable if difference in length of sessions is extreme, student should control maximum rate of response, measure accurately reflects proficiency if complexity of task remains constantDuration: measures the length of time that a behavior occurs. Should use when behavior doesn’t occur frequently but lasts a whileLatency: measurement of the length of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the occurrence of a behaviorInterresponse times: the amount of time in between each responseRate is a type of frequency measure because it is the number of behaviors occurring per unit of time, preferred measure for free operants because of the sensitivity of data to behavior change and the precision with which the measurement technique can be definedcombining observation time with count = number of responses/per unit of timecan combine different observation timesalways reference counting time (length of session)calculate correct and incorrect rates of response when assessing skill developmenttake into account the varied complexity of responses- needs to remain constantuse rate of responding to measure free operantsdo not use to measure bx that occur within discrete trialsdo not use to measure continuous bx that occur for extended periods of time A-03 Duration: The extent of time a behavior occurs during an observation period, can indicate how long a client engages in a particular class of behavior, can be used with endurance activities, does not have numerical dimension. Use when time is important-good for high rate bx that occurs for extended period of timeTotal Duration – cumulative amount of time can do within specified observation time or withoutDuration/occurrence – measure duration of each instance -event recording measures repeatability and duration recording measures temporal extentA-04 Latency: length of time elapsed between the onset of a stimulus and the occurrence of behavior, appropriate when the major concern is the length of time that occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and the beginning of performance of that taskA-05 Inter-response time (IRT)-the amount of time that elapses between 2 consecutive instances of a response-measure of temporal locus because it specifies when a specific instance of bx occurs with respect to another event-functionally related to rate of response-measure IRT when time btw response class is important A-06 percent of occurrence: Ratio that expresses the amount of behavior or correct responses per opportunity, such as -number of trials-opportunities to respond-number of intervals using time sampling -use with discriminative operants that have limited opportunity to occur. -will over or under estimate if too few opportunities to respond -limited use because percentage has no dimensional qualities -also imposes lower and upper limitsExpresses the proportional quantity of behavior in terms of the number of times the event occurred, on a scale of 0 to 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred, or total occurrences.A-07 trials to criterion: Measures the number of times response opportunities are presented before an individual achieves a pre-established level of competence or proficiency-often repeated after the fact as an important aspect of the “cost” of treatment-used to compare efficiency of 2 or more treatments -can also be collected and analyzed as a dv throughout a study-can be useful for assessing a learner’s increasing competence in acquiring a related class of conceptsA-08 Assess and interpret inter-observer agreement: IOA- the extent to which 2 observers agreeTo increase reliability of data collection, conduct IOA observations. There are essentially two main formulae with some variations.for continuous measures such as frequency, duration, latency, etc. the formula is:IOA= lower number (frequency, duration, latency, etc.) X 100 higher number (frequency, duration, latency, etc.) 2) For Trials-to-Criterion or Time Sampling, the basic formula is:IOA = (Agreements/Agreements + Disagreements) X100 Special Case formulas:For interval x interval:Use ALL recording intervals in the denominator and include agreements of BOTH scored and unscored intervals. For example, if you use partial interval recording using 10 intervals, you would calculate IOA by adding the intervals in which both observers agreed on the occurrence (scored interval) and non-occurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals (i.e. 10), and multiply by 100 to obtain a percentage. b) Scored Interval IOA calculation:For this calculation, add the number of instances the observers agreed on occurrence (scored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals of agreement of occurrence (scored interval) of the behavior plus intervals in which AT LEAST ONE observer recorded an occurrence (scored intervals), or disagreements, and multiply this result by 100. All instances of agreement of nonoccurrence (unscored intervals) are not used in the denominator. c) Unscored Interval IOA calculation:For this calculation, add the number of instances the observers agreed on nonoccurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior and divide by the total number of intervals of agreement of nonoccurrence (unscored interval) of the behavior plus intervals in which AT LEAST ONE observer recorded nonoccurrence (unscored intervals), disagreements, and multiply this result by 100. All instances of agreement of occurrence (scored intervals) are not used in the denominator. A-09 Various methods of evaluating the accuracy and reliability of measurement procedures?Interobserver agreement: oPercentage of agreement between observers is most common usedoWhen the dv is a measure that represents how often, what strength, or how long behavior occurs the agreement can be calculated by dividing small score by larger scoreo Sometimes you can have high agreement but not recording the same should use block by block to calculate agreementoWhen using frequency should collect data so that smaller comparisons can be madeoFor interval measures can calculate the agreements/disagreements for each intervaloOccurrence-nonoccurrence reliability: determine if they agree on occurrences and nonoccurrences of their scoring ( look at agreements on occurring and nonoccurring)oOccurrence reliability: only scoring of the occurrence of the behavior that was observed (include only those intervals where both observers said the behavior occurred) should be used with behavior that occurs at low frequencyoNonoccurrence: only score the nonoccurrence of behavior should be used with high frequency behaviorsoAccuracy: the extent to which a measure reflects the true valueoReliability: repeated measurement of the same event yields the same result-measurement must be valid and accurate-if measurement is not valid, accuracy is moot-inaccurate measurement renders invalid the data obtained by otherwise valid measurement-high reliability does not mean high accuracy, poor reliability reveals problems with accuracyoIOA- the extent to which 2 observers agreeoValidity- the extent to which a measure measures what it purports to measure. Yield data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it. Requires 3 elements:- measuring directly a socially sign bx-measuring a dimension of the target bx relevant to the question or concern about the bx-ensuring that the data are representative of the bx’s occurrence under conditions and during times that are most relevant to the question or concern about the bxoAccurate data will be reliable but reliable data is not always accurate Threats to measurement Validity:Indirect Measurement- what is actually measured is in some way diff from the target bxMeasuring wrong dimensions: validity is compromised when measurement produces values for a dimension of the bx ill suited for or irrelevant to, the reason for measuring the bxMeasurement of artifacts: validity is reduced when the data do not give meaningful representation of bx. Data give unwarranted or misleading pic of the bx because of the way measurement was conducted caused by: discontinuous measurement, poorly scheduled obs periods, and insensitive/limited measurement scalesThreats to measurement Accuracy and reliability-human error-poorly designed measuring systems-inadequate observer trainer – select observers carefully, train to objective std of competency, provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift-unintended influences on observers – expectations or reactivityAssessing accuracy and reliabilityAccuracy: -important to determine whether data are good enough to serve as basis for making decisions-enables discovery and correction of specific instances of measurement error-can reveal consistent patterns of measurement error-to assure consumers that data are accurate-need to obtain true values indpt of the sources to be used-compare observed data to true value-should report number and percentage of measures that were checked for accuracy, degree of accuracy found, extent of measurement error detected, and whether they were corrected.Reliability:-compare same observer with same data set repeatedly (see above on IOA)Mean count/interval: break obs period into intervals calculate agreement within each intervalExact count/interval: most stringent % of total intervals in which 2 obs recorded same countTrial by trial: agreement of occ/nonocc of a bx can overestimate actual agreementTotal Duration: shorter duration divided by longerMean duration/occurrence: break obs period into intervals calculate agreement within each intervalInterval by interval: number of agreements divided by total likely to overestimate agreementOccurrence: see aboveNonoccurence: see aboveConsiderations with IOA:-assess at least 20% of sessions-should report IOA at the same levels at which they report and discuss the results of the study-should use stringent methods-90% IOA for established measure, 80% for new measure-can report using narrative, table, graph, etc A-10 Design, plot, and interpret equal-interval graphsLine Graphs:-the horizontal axis is marked off in equal intervals, each representing from left to right the chronological succession of equal time periods across which behavior was measuredoVertical axis 5/8 length of horizontaloIf range of values is small, start at zero and use scale breakoUse scale breaks on vertical axis to represent variability that is of social significanceoVertical axis represents DV-any point on the plane represents a specific relationship btw the 2 dimensions described by intersecting lines. Each point shows the level of some quantifiable dimension of the target bx in relation to a specific point in time and/or env condition-horizontal axis should be marked in equal intervals-scale break should represent discontinuity in time on horizontal axis-vertical axis should consider social sign of levels of bx: increase in distances = decrease variability, decrease in distance=decrease in variabilityParts1. Horizontal Axis- x axis/antrumm, most often represents the passage of time and presence/absence/or value of IV2. Vertical Axis- y axis/antrumm, represents a range of antru of the DV some quantifiable dimension of bx. Equal interval: equal distances on the axis represent equal amounts of bx3. Condition change lines: vertical line drawn upward from horizontal axis to show points in time at which changes in IV occurred4. Condition Labels: printed along top of graph identify exp conditions5. Data point: represent 2 facts: quantifiable measure of target bx, the time and/or exp conditions under which that particular measurement was conducted6. Data path: connecting successive data points represents trend and level7. Figure Caption: concise statementsBar Graphs:* - simple and versatile format for graphically summarizing bx data-used for displaying and comparing discrete sets of data that are not related to one another by a common underlying dimension by which the horizontal axis can be scaled-provides visual summary of performance of a part or group during diff conditions-sacrifice presentation of variability and trends in bx in exchange for efficiency*Note: a Bar Graph is NOT the same as a HistogramA-11 Design, plot and interpret data using cumulative record or graph to display data-Skinner’s primary means of recording -cumulative recorder enables subject to draw own graph-raw data that permits direct inspection of rates and changes in rate-Horizontal = no response or maintained level-steeper line = increase responding-number of responses recorded during each obs period is added to the total number of responses recorded during all previous obs periods-y-axis = value of any data point represents the total number of responses recorded since beginning-almost always used with frequency can use with duration and latency-shows overall and local response rates-rate = number of responses emitted/unit of timeOverall response rate- any rate of response over a given time periodLocal response rate- rate of response during periods of time smaller than that for which overall rate has been given-most directly descriptive displays of bx data but hard to ascertain number of responses/session, hard to compare high rates, and gradual changes in slope from rate to another can be hard to detect4 situations to use:1. Total number of responses over time important or when progress toward a specific goal can be measured in cumulative units2. When graph is used as source of feedback3. When target bx can occur or not occur only once/session4. Can reveal the intricate relations btw bx and env variablesUse data displays that highlight patterns of behaviorScatterplots-relative distribution of indv measures in a data set with respect to the variables depicted by the x and y axes-show how much changes in the value of the variable depicted by one axis correlate with changes in the value of the variable represented by the other axis-can use to discover temporal distribution of target bxA-12 Design and implement continuous measurement proceduresFrequency dataEvent recordingTemporal dimensions: - temporal locus (e.gs. IRT, Latency) - temporal extent (duration)-combination of these such as rate, mean IRT, mean latencySeverity or Magnitude (force or intensity)A-13 Design and implement discontinuous measurement procedures Interval recording methods: Measures presence or absence of behavior at any time during partial interval or during whole interval, or momentary time sampling Measuring at any time for partial interval recording will produce an overestimation of occurrence of behaviorShould be used when goal is behavior reduction, requires undivided attention of observer. Measuring during whole interval: can indicate whether a class of behaviors is continuous, produce a slight underestimate of behavior, should be used when trying to produce behavior increase, requires undivided attention of observerMomentary time sampling does not tend to over- or under-estimate actual occurrence of behavior up to 2 – 3 minute observation intervals.Use partial interval recording for low frequency, discrete behaviorsUse whole interval for duration measures such as time engaging in interactive play, “tantrumming,” etc. or for behavior that is very rapid or “episodic” rather than discrete, countable instances.A-14 Design and Implement Choice MeasuresThis refers to preference methods such as reinforcer preference. There are a many methods and means to accomplish this which are in a chapter in Cooper et. al, 2007, Applied Behavior Analysis. B. Experimental DesignB-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature7 dimensions of ABA?Applied: Applied interventions deal with problems of demonstrated social importance. ?Behavioral: Applied interventions deal with measurable behavior (or reports if they can be validated). ?Analytic: Applied interventions require an objective demonstration that the procedures caused the effect. ?Technological: Applied interventions are described well enough that they can be implemented by anyone with training and resources. ?Conceptual Systems: Applied interventions arise from a specific and identifiable theoretical base rather than being a set of packages or tricks. ?Effective: Applied interventions produce strong, socially important effects. ?Generality: Applied interventions are designed from the outset to operate in new environments and continue after the formal treatments have ended. B-02 Review and interpret articles from the behavior-analytic literatureEvaluate articles in terms of the 7 dimensions of behavior analysisB-03, B-04 Systematically manipulate independent variables to analyze their effects on treatment?Withdrawal designs: alternation between baseline and a particular intervention. (Also referred to as the “reversal design” in Cooper et. al., 2007, Applied Behavior Analysis)?Reversal Designs: contingency applied to opposite behaviorsA-B-A-B design is the most straightforward and powerful single subject design for demonstrating a functional relationshipA-B-C-B design (compare one intervention to another or opposite behavior)Appropriateness: ADV: provide clear demonstration of the existence of fxnal relation between IV and DV, allows quantification of amount of bx change. DISADV: ineffective in evaluating the effects of an IV that cannot be withdrawn once introduced, once improved some behaviors will not reverse, ethical considerations for withdrawing an effective treatment, sometimes brief reversal phases or baseline probes are effective at demonstrating exp controlVariations-repeated reversals: a-b-a-b-a-bA-B-A-B: preferred over A-B-A because treatment is in effect but not as good at demonstrating functional relation bc there is no baseline. Preferred when there is limited time or when a treatment is already in placeMultiple treatment reversal: compare effects of 2 or more experimental conditions to baseline and/or to one another. Each IV has to be introduced twice. Vulnerable to confounding bc of sequence effects. Can manipulate each condition so that it precedes and follows every other condition, can fix this. A-B-A-B-C-B-C-A-C-A-CNCR Reversal Technique: providing NCR during baseline to determine if behavior change was contingent on rft. or not -DRO reversal: reinforce any behavior other than the target bx during controlDRI/DRA reversal- reinforce any behavior that is incompatible or alternative to target bx during reversalB-05 Alternating Treatments: (multi-element, simultaneous treatment, multiple or concurrent schedules). OComparing 2 or more treatments. OCharacterized by the rapid alternation between 2 or more treatments and measuring effect on single behavior. OAdvantages: minimizes sequence effects, does not require w/drawl of treatment, can compare effectiveness quickly, can be used with unstable data patterns, can be used to assess generalization of beh change, can proceed without an initial baseline, controls for maturation, attrition, data instability, and early terminationoAppropriateness: may seem artificial, susceptible to multiple treatment interference can counter this by following the alternating treatment phase with a phase in which only one treatment is used, usually limited to max of three IV, best at revealing differential effects of Ivs that are significantly diff from one another, Not beneficial if the IV only produces change when applied over a continuous amount of timeoNeed minimum of 2 comparisons of adjacent conditions: a-b-a, b-c-b, b-bc-b-provides an experimentally sound and efficient method for comparing the effects of 2 or more treatments-levels are manipulated independent of level of responding-often use discriminative stimulus with each treatment-presence and degree of experimental control is determined by visual inspection of different between data pathsVariations:-Without no-treatment control- single phase experiment in which the effects of 2 or more treatment conditions are comparedWith no-treatment control- a no treatment condition is included as one of the treatments to be comparedWith initial baseline- baseline measures are collected until a stable level of responding or countertherapuetic trend is obtained.With baseline and best treatment initial baseline, second phase comparing alternating treatment, 3rd phase in which only the most effective treatment is administeredB-06 Changing Criterion Design: can be used to evaluate the effects of reinforcement or punishment contingencies on the gradual or stepwise improvement of a behavior already in the subjects repertoireoAfter baseline, treatment phase begins and reinforcement or punishment is contingent upon subject’s performing at a specified level. ODesign entails a series of treatment phases, each requiring an improved level of performance over the previous phase.OExperimental control is demonstrated when the subject’s performance closely conforms to the gradually changing criteriaoThree features combine to demonstrate control: length of phases, magnitude of criterion changes, number of criterion changesoBelievability is enhanced if a previous criterion is reinstated and subject’s behavior reverse’s to level previously observedoAdvantages: does not require a reversal or withdrawl, provides a functional analysis within the context of a gradually improving behavior, thus complementing the practice of many teacherso Limitations: target behavior must already be in repertoire, limited to a narrow range of variables, incorporating the necessary features of the design can actually impeded optimal learning ratesoLarge change provides more evidence for experimental control-can be used to evaluate the effects of a treatment that is applied in a graduated or stepwise fashion-each phase of the design provides a baseline for next phaseB-07 Multiple Baseline Design: simultaneous measurement is begun on two or more target behaviors (people settings). After stable baseline responding has been achieved, the IV is applied to one of the behaviors while the others remain the same. After maximum change has been noted in the first behavior, the IV is then applied in sequential fashion to the other behaviorsoExperimental control is demonstrated by each behavior’s changing when, and only when, the IV is appliedoThree forms: across behaviors, across settings, across subjectsoSelect bx that is independent yet functionally antrumoAdvantages: withdrawl of seemingly effective treatment is not required in order to show exp control, sequential implementation of IV parallels practice in schools, concurrent measurement of multiple behaviors allows direct monitoring of generalization, relatively easy to conceptualize and useoLimitations: if two or more behaviors in the design covary, the MB may not demonstrate a functional relationship even though one exists, inherently weaker than reversal design, more an evaluation of IV general effectiveness than an analysis of the behaviors involved, requires considerable time and resources-need to be careful to plan and carry out the design in a manner that will afford the greatest degree of confidence in any relations suggested by the data-select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baseline = 2 bx must be measured concurrently, all of the relevant variables that influence 1 bx must have an opportunity to influence the other bx-do not apply the IV to the next bx too soon-vary significantly the lengths of multiple baseline-intervene on most stable baseline first-VariationsB-08 Multiple Probe – extend operation and logic of the multiple baseline tactic to bx or situations in which concurrent measurement of all bx comprising the design is unnecessary, potentially reactive, impractical or too costly-intermittent measures, proves, provide basis for determining whether bx change has occurred prior to intervention-3 steps: initial probe is taken to determine the subject’s level of perf on each bx in the sequence, a series of baseline measures is obtained on each step prior to training on that step, after criterion is reached on any step, probe of each step is conductedDelayed Multiple Baseline: initial baseline and intervention are begun and subsequent baseline are added in a staggered or delayed fashionB-09 Use combinations of design elementsE.g. Nested designs: multiple baseline with: probes, reversal design, or alternating treatments designB-10 Component Analysis analyze each component of a treatment package to determine what aspects of the package are effectiveComponents of experiment: at least 1 participant, 1 bx, 1 setting; system for measuring the bx and ongoing visual analysis of data; treatment intervention; manipulations of IV so that its effects on DV can be detected.Experimental Question: brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn from conducting the experiment. Good design answers question convincingly, needs to be constructed in rxn to the question and then testedSubject: experimental logic for analyzing bx changes often employs the subject as her own controlDV: the target bc, experiment is designed to determine if the bx is dependent on the IVSetting: must control 2 aspects of setting: IV and extraneous variablesMeasurement System and Ongoing analysis: observation and recording procedures need to be conducted in standardized fashionIV: aspect of the env that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether it affects the subject’s bxExperimental Design: particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absence, or different values of the IV can be made.B-11 Parametric Analysis: analyze differential effects of a range of values of the IV (i.e, levels of a variable along a dimension. Eg.s: Identify optimal amount, magnitude or frequency of reinforcement Identify optimal environmental conditions such as light, air flow, temperature, noise in a work settingIdentify effective prompt levels for instructional purposes such as errorless teaching, use of prompt fadingsometimes used because a functional relation may have more generality if it is based on several values of the IV.C. Behavior-Change ConsiderationsC-01 State and plan for unwanted effects of reinforcement ?Elicited emotional effects?Aggression/ritualistic behavior – may increase between presentations of stimulus?Approach to reinforcer agent – could result in missed learning opportunities and could be socially inappropriate?Operant effects generalization and discrimination (and matching law)?Response induction – all response class initially is not reinforced and the entire response class is eligible for reinf on the same schedule = all beh of a single response class increase?Transient effects?Imitation – will not be imitated correctly?Decrease target beh by strengthening be incompatible with -Must consider temporal delay between the response and onset of consequence stimulus conditions in effect, and strength of current motivation (MO effects).Negative Reinforcement:Ethical Considerations-need for an MO-deprivation state-need for noxious events-presence of aversive stimuli can generate behaviors that compete w/the acquisition of desired behavior-might have some of the same effects as punishmentC-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of punishment ?Negatively reinforces the punisher?Can elicit emotional or aggressive behaviors from the individual who was punished?Can promote avoidance and escape can also serve as a negative modeling procedure?Effects are unpredictable?Modeling?Perpetuation of punishment…continue to use even though ineffective?Conditioned punishers ?No alternative behavior?Need for punishing agent?withdrawal effects- Behavioral Contrast: increase rates of behavior that is not punished and decrease rates of behavior that is punished. C-03 State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of extinction. ?Initial increase in frequency and magnitude (extinction burst) – undesirable behaviors usually get worse?Produces a gradual reduction in frequency and magnitude especially with negatively reinforced behaviors?Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of the beh even though it has not been reinforced, short lived and limited if the extinction procedure stays in placeBehavioral Contrast effects: reinstatement of a reinforcement contingency that has been temporarily removedD.Fundamental Elements of Behavior ChangeD-01 Use positive and Negative reinforcementIdentify and use reinforcers?Asking – ask what individual prefers ?Observing – watch what an individual does on a regular basis. Contrived: set up env or no contrived: in everyday env?Reinforcer sampling – present with a sample of potential reinforcer in order to gain experience with it ?Forced choice – make choices available and have to pick one?Trying and seeing – have to try and see if behavior increases?Reinforcer sampling: Present items several at a time; re-present with picked item missing, rank order the items?Premack principle – follow low probability behavior with high probability behavior-Preference assessments: used to determine the stimuli that the person prefers, relative preference values of those stimuli, the conditions under which those preference values change when task demands, deprivations states, or schedules of reinforcement are modified.-Guidelines:-monitor prior to assess to determine if Eos are in effect-balance cost-benefit ratio of brief vs. long assess-use method that has ranking against one that doesn’t but occurs more frequently-limited time – conduct brief assess with fewer items-combine data from multiple assessment methodsReinforcer Assessment:-a variety of direct, data-based methods used to present 1 or more stimuli contingent on a target response and then measuring the future effect of rate of respondingConcurrent schedule: pit 2 reinforcers against each other and see what has increased respondingMultiple schedule: 2 or more component schedules of reinf for a single response w/only one component schedule in effect at any given time. Present contingent for one part and on fixed interval for anotherProgressive Ratio: -preference assess with low response requirement may not accurately predict potency of reinf under increased response requirements-allows person to determine effectiveness of reinforcement as response requirements increase-progressively increase response requirements until rate decreasesNegative Reinforcement-occurrence of a response produces removal of a stimulus which leads to an increase in future respondingEscape Contingency: response terminates an ongoing stimulusAvoidance Contingency: response prevents/postpones the presentation of a stimulusCharacteristics:-any response that successfully terminates the stimulation will be strengthened-hard to explain what serves as neg. rft.-unconditioned – no learning history or conditioned learning history-should consider source of termination-need to identify MO and reinforcement-Effective under these conditions: stimulus change immediate, magnitude of rft. is large, occurrence of target response consistent rft., rft. is unavailable for competing responsesApplications: Acquisition and maintenance of appropriate bx: -chronic food refusal-error correction strategiesAcquisition and maint of problem bx -use replacement behavior: FCTEthical Considerations (see ethical considerations for use of punishment and extinction)-need for an MO-deprivation state-need for noxious events-presence of aversive stimuli can generate behaviors that compete w/the acquisition of desired behavior-might have some of the same effects as punishmentD-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement?Parameters: Amount, quality, variety, duration, magnitude, MO?Schedules: oContinuous schedules of reinforcement should be used during initial stages of learning and for later strengthening of behavioroIntermittent Reinforcement is desirable because: can be used to maintain beh, it is resistant to extinction, generates high response rates, assists the move to more naturally occurring reinforcement, helps to control satiation, is cost effectiveoFixed ratio: constant number of responses must be made before reinforcement is delivered. FR1 is used when training initially. Characteristics: After reinforcement, a postreinforcement pause is produced, after the pause the ratio requirement is completed with a high rate of response and very little hesitation between responses. Generate high rates of respondingoVariable Ratio: average number of responses must be made before reinforcement is delivered. Characteristics: completed with a very high rate of response and little hesitation between responseoFixed Interval: the first correct response after a designated and constant amount of time produces the reinforcer. Characteristics: generate slow to moderate rates of responding with a pause in responding following reinforcementoVariable Interval: the first correct response after an average amount of time produces the reinforcer. Characteristics: generates slow to moderate response that is constant and stableoDifferential reinforcement of high rates (DRH): The reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterionoDifferential reinforceoment of low rates (DRL): When responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterionoLimited hold: requires that the first response following the appropriate time interval occurs within a specified time limitLimited Hold: Added to interval schedule, reinf remains available for a finite time following the elapse of FI or VI-miss opportunity to receive rx if response does not occur within limitThinning Reinforcement-gradually increase response ratio or duration of time antrumm-use instructions to explain schedule of Rx-Ratio strain: results from abrupt increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner schedules of rxVariations, & Differential ReinforcementDRH: reinforce high ratesDRL: reinforce low ratesSpaced responding: rx is only available for responses that are separated by a given amount of timeDRD: differential rx of diminishing rates provides rx at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterion that is gradually decreasingProgressive schedule: systematically thins each successive rx opportunity indpt of participants bxCompound Schedules: can occur: successively or simultaneously, with or without discriminative stimulus, as a reinf contingnent for each element, indp of a contingency formed by the combination of all elementsConcurrent-2 or more cont of rx operate indptly and simultaneously for 2 or more bx-used as reinf assess: part makes choices, approximates natural env, produces hypotheses about reinf, choose btw stimuli rather than indicate a preferenceMultiple schedules:-2 or more basic schedules of reinf in an alternating usually random sequence-discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic scheduleChained:-similar to a multiple schedule have 2 or more basic schedule req that occur successively and have a discriminative stimulus correlated with each indpt schedule-always occurs in same order may be same bx or diff bx, conditioned reinf for responding in 1st element is 2nd element, etcNondiscriminated:Mixed: same as multiple except no SDTandem: same as chained except no SDSchedules combining number of responses and time:Alternative: reinf whenever req of ratio or interval is met Conjunctive: reinf when ratio and interval is metUsing schedules of reinforcement1. Instructions, environmental aids, and self-management- resistant to temporal control2. Past histories can affect current reinforcement3. More immediate history = more influence4. Sequential responses are uncommon applications of schedules of reinforcement5. Uncontrolled Mos will compound affectsAutomaticity of Reinforcement – person does not have to understand or verbalize the relation btw his actions and a reinforcing consequence or even be aware that a consequence has occurred-no logical or adaptive connection between behavior and reinforcing consequence is necessary for rft. To occurAutomatic Reinforcement: behavior produces own reinforcement independent of mediation of othersClassifying Reinforcement-unconditioned – no learning history with stimulus-conditioned- neutral stimulus that acquired reinf through stimulus stimulus pairing-edible, sensory, tangible, activity, socialControl Procedures: -used to manipulate the contingent presentation of a potential rft. and observe any effects on the future frequency of behavior-Control: experimental demonstration that the presentation of a stimulus contingent on the occurrence of a target response functions as positive rft.-shown by comparing absence and presence contingency-can be done using reversal, NCR, DRO, DRA Use reinforcement effectively-set an easily achieved initial criterion-use high quality reinf of sufficient magnitude-use varied rx to maintain potent MO-use direct rx contingencies when possible-combine response prompts and reinforcement-reinf each occurrence of the bx initially-use contingent reinforcer and social praise-reinforce immediately – i.e. contiguity-gradually increase the response to reinforcement delay-gradually shift from contrived to naturally occurring rfcrs.Adjunctive BehaviorSchedule-induced behavior when the frequency of these “adjunctive” behaviors increases as a side effect of other behavior maintained by a schedule of reinforcement, or are on a time based schedule.D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading Response Prompts:?Verbal directions- use finally appropriate verbal instructions as supplementary response prompts vocal (oral telling) and nonvocal (signs, pics)?Modeling – demonstrate desired bx only use with students who have developed imitative skills?Physical guidance- partial or full guidance through the responseStimulus Prompts: operates directly on ante task stimuli?Movement cues (gestural prompts)?Position cues?Redundancy cues (one ore more stimulus/response dimensions are paired with correct choice)?Within – alters the SD: size, shape, position, etc?Extra – does not alter SDTransfer of control-supplementary ante stimuli only during acquisition phase of instruction-fade prompts-temporal fading (time delay) Fading response prompts:Most to least prompts – use highest level and gradually decrease from trial to trial and session to session?Graduated guidance: provide physical prompts only when needed and then faded immediately whenever the student responds correctly?Shadowing: teacher following the student’s movements very closely without touching?Spatial fading: gradually change the location of the physical prompt?Initially complete physical guidance through entire performance, and progressive fading of the prompt follows (prompting hierarchy)Least to Most PromptsoInitial opportunity to respond independently oNo response or error provide low level of assistanceoIncrease assistance following subsequent errorsTime delayoHave prompt that reliably evokes target behavioroProgressive begin at 0 and over course of several trials or sessions increase to predetermined maximumoConstant- begin at 0 and jump to predetermined max after a few trialsoProtocol: initial delay of 0 seconds- SD-immediate prompt – correct response – reinf, subsequent trials – SD-delay-prompt-correct-reinfoReinf regardless of before or after promptoIf error occurs correct immediatelyTransfer of stimulus control:Stimulus shapingChanging the topography of the physical stimulusStimulus fadingoHighlighting one or more physical dimensions of stimulusoGradually fade to natural stimulus alter size color positionD-04 Use modeling and imitation training Model: antecedent stimulus, can be an individual or a demonstrated behavior, can be actual demonstrations or symbols, can be planned or unplanned, can serve as Sds for existing imitative behaviors or totally new behaviorsUnplanned- ante stimuli with capacity to evoke imitationPlanned- prearranged ante stimuli that help learners acquire new skills or refine topography shows learner exactly what to do.Imitation-any physical movement may fxn as a model for imitation, a model is an ante stimulus that evokes the imitative bx. -an imitative bx must immediately follow the presentation of the model-the model and the bx must have formal similarity-the model must be the controlling variableImitative behavior: is behavior that immediately follows a model’s behavior and has its topography controlled by that model’s behaviorCharacteristics of the model: similarity between model and imitator can influence likelihood of imitative behavior, model with prestige can increase the likelihood of imitative beh, stress or emphasis on the model stimuli can increase likelihood of imitation, effectiveness of a model can be further enhanced by instructionsSelecting behaviors to be modeled: behaviors should be at an appropriate level of difficultyIncludes someone performing the correct beh, learner observing performer, learner given opportunity to imitateFormal Similarity- when model and bx physically resemble each other and are in the same sense modeImmediacy- when bx occurs in absence of model, that is not imitationControlled Relation – most important property that defines imitation, must respond to new instances of bxImitation trainingTeach learners to do what the person providing the model does regardless of the bx modeled-assess and teach prerequisites – attending is a necessary prerequisite-selecting models – gross and fine motor = start with body parts and objects-pretesting – if meets criterion, don’t train. If doesn’t, train-sequencing selected models – arrange from easiest to most difficult-Conduct training: preassessment = short pretest, Training = one model, post assessment = 5 mastered and 5 trained determine when to move on, probe = 5 nontrained models to assess novel respondingGuidelines-keep training sessions brief and active-reinf both prompted and imitative response-pair verbal praise with tangible rft.-if progress breaks down, back up and move ahead slowly-keep a record-fade out prompts-ending imitation training: can imitate novel responsesD-05 Use shaping?Defined as: differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired behavior?Shaping behaviors across different response topographies means that select members of a responses class are differentially reinforced and members of other response classes are not reinforced?Shaping behaviors within a response topography means that differential reinforcement is applied to dimension of the behavior while the form of the behavior remains constant?Efficiency of behavioral shaping can be increased by using a discriminative stimulus, physical prompt, or imitative promptGuidelines:- select terminal behavior: choose bx that leads to most independence 1st and define precisely- determine the criterion for success: freq, magn, duration can compare to estb norms - conduct an analysis of the response class: attempt to identify approximations- identify the first behavior to reinforce: bx should already occur should be a member of targeted response class- eliminate interfering stimuli: - proceed in gradual steps: anticipate changes in rate of progress and be prepared to go from antrum to antrum as bx dictates- limit the number of steps in each level: do not offer too many trials at a given antrum – may cause antrum to become firmly estb-continue to reinforce the terminal behavior and link the behavior to other behaviors?Use FR1 schedule of reinf?Starting beh in shaping: first topography you will reinforce, may be dissimilar to target beh?Shaping within a response class: one topography of response class is reinforced while other topographies are not?Efficiency can be enhanced by: instructions, gestures, and other antecedent stimuli?Used when topography of behavior is not in repertoire or a dimension such as rate is inadequate?Advance to next step when beh is estb at current step but before so strong that prompting new beh is hinderedDifferential Rx: rx is provided for responses that share a predetermined dimension/quality, rx is withheld for responses that do not demonstrate that qualityResponse differentiation: when rx results in new response classSuccessive Approx: reinf bx that is in learner’s repertoire and shares topographical feature w/target bx shift criteria to closer antrumShaping diff antrum; can shape in terms of topography, frequency, latency, duration, amplitude/magnitudePositive Aspects:-teaches new bx-uses a pos approach-punish not typically involved-can be combined with other bx change proceduresLimitations-time-consuming-progress toward terminal bx is not always linear-consistently monitor learner to detect subtle indications that data collection and assessment of target bx has been performed-can be misapplied-harmful bx can be shapedShaping vs. stimulus fading-shaping: ante stays the same, response changes-stimulus fading: ante stimulus changes gradually, response stays sameD-06 Use Chaining?Defined as: a specific sequence of responses each associated with a particular stimulus condition. ?Performance of each individual response in the presence of the associated stimulus condition serves as an individual component of the chain?The stimulus condition and the conditioned reinforcer operate so that each response produces a discriminative stimulus for the next response and that Sd simultaneously serves as conditioned reinforcement for the response preceding it?Three reasons to use a chain: can be used to improving independent living skills, can provide the means by which other behaviors are combined into more complex sequences, and can be used in an overall behavior change programBx chain with limited hold:-sequence of bx that must be performed correctly and within a specified time-characterized by accurate and proficient perfRational bx ChainChaining: various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli and responses to form new performances-to increase indpt living skills-bx can be combined to form a series of responses that occasion the delivery of pos rx-can be combined with other bx change prompting instructions and reinforcing procedures to build more complex and adaptive repertoiresInterrupting and breaking beh chains:-interrupt execution of existing chain to advance a diff response-know how to break an inapp beh chainBeh chain interruption strategy-relies on participant’s skill to perform the critical elements of the chain indptly, but chain is interrupted at a predetermined step so that another bx can be emitted-assess ability to do chain and level of discomfort when interrupted-don’t use chain that results in SIB-start chain and interfere at predetermined stepBreaking Inappropriate chain:-determine initial Sd and substitute Sd for on alt bx-or extend chain and build in time delays-reexamine sds and responses: may need to use new sd-determine whether sd cues diff responses: rearrange sd and associated response-analyze natural setting to identify relevant and irrelevant sds-determine whether sd in natural setting diff from training setting: do final training in natural setting-identify presence of novel stimuli in envFactors affecting Performance:-completeness of task anlaysis-length or complexity of chain-schedule of reinf: need to use appropriate schedule, number of responses in chain may need to be considered when defining the schedule of rx-stimulus variation- present all possible variations of the stimulus-response variation- might need to retrain responses D-07 Conduct task analysesoFirst need to: assess and validate the components of the behavioral sequence, assess the mastery level of the individual with respect to these behaviors, teach the individual to perform the behaviors in order and in close temporal successionoInvolves breaking a complex skill or series of behaviors into smaller, teachable units.OPurpose of constructing and validating a task analysis is to determine the sequence of critical behaviors an individual must perform to complete a given task efficientlyoCan develop task analysis by observing or doing pilot studies with competent individuals, consulting with experts or persons skilled with performing the task, actually perform the behaviors, trial and error procedure, consider the temporal order of the skills to be mastered, oForward chaining: sequence of behaviors identified in the task analysis is taught in temporal orderoTotal task presentation: variation of forward chaining in which the individual receives training on each step during every sessionoBackward chaining: all of the behaviors are first completed by the trainer except for the final behavior-ADV: learner comes into contact with terminal rx for chain on every instruction session, stimulus that is present = increase in discriminative properties-DISADV: may limit total number of responses made-w/leap aheads: not every step is trained, some steps are probed = decrease in training timeoConsider materials and prerequisite skillsValidating Components (see above)-Sds and corresponding responses must be identified-ind must discriminate which conditions to perform responseAssess Mastery Level-to determine which components of the task analysis a person can perform indSingle-opportunity: test ability to perform each step in correct sequence = more conservativeMultiple opportunity: evaluates the person’s level of mastery across all the bx in the task analysis, teacher cannot help, takes longer but provides more infoD-08 Use discrete-trials and free-operant arrangements oAvoid satiationoDeal with problem behaviorD-09 Use the verbal operants as a basis for language assessment (see below)Six different types of elementary verbal operants (Skinner, 1957. Verbal Behavior):MandTactEchoicIntraverbalTextual TranscriptionIn Skinner’s this definition, verbal behavior may include any act by a person that is “communicative” in nature. For Skinner, a “speaker” and “listener” are the essential requirements for communication to occurNote that use of our vocal apparatus is not the sole defining criterion for engaging in verbal behaviorThus, use of signs, gestures, pictures, and other actions of the person constitutes verbal behavior, given that it has some effect on the action of another person as listener.Verbal Behavior according to Skinner is any operant requiring a speaker and a listenerOperants such as scratching one’s self when itchy, or picking up a coin found on the ground, and so on, are not “verbal behavior” if they do not have an effect on a listener or are not mediated by a listener (i.e. no communicative intent)D-10 Use echoic training The echoic is similar to the intraverbal in that it occurs in response to other verbal behavior, but the resulting verbal behavior matches the form of the verbal stimulus. The listener is “echoing” what she or he hears. The ability to repeat words is an important aspect of language training, and is essential for learning to identify objects and actions, and for development of other verbal operants (Cooper et. al., 2007). For example, imitation of sounds, words, or entire phrases would be considered echoics.For an early language learner the ability to repeat words when asked to do so plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants.The ability to repeat words when asked to do so plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants.Placing an echoic trial within a mand frame.Increasing any vocal behavior may facilitate echoics Directly reinforce all vocal behaviors.D-11 Use mand training The mand (from command, demand and countermand) is a verbal operant "in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation" (Skinner, 1957)The mand does not occur in response to a specific stimulus. Rather, the mand is under the control of motivational operations (MO), which increase the power or effectiveness of the reinforcer and is under the stimulus control of the presence of the audience which is necessary for all verbal behavior. Teach early learners to mand reinforcers with strong MO control such as toys, edibles, devices such as a tablet or smart phoneThis is a very important component of language training programs for children with developmental/intellectual disabilities or autism spectrum disorder.Examples of Mands:Extreme thirst would serve as an MO for requesting a drink. Fear of spiders would serve as an MO for asking to leave the room or area the person is in Examples of mands include requesting food and toys, requesting information, saying "no" or "yes" to an offered item, asking for a break, and asking for assistanceD-12 Use tact training TACTSThe tact is evoked by "a particular object or event or property of an object or event.” (Skinner, 1957) Skinner was referring to some contact with the stimulating environment as the evoking stimulus. This operant is commonly referred to as a comment or a label.ExamplesA child sees a cup on the table and says “cup.” A child sees a car outside and says “car.”D-13 Use Intraverbal training INTRAVERBALSSkinner coined the term intraverbal to refer to verbal behavior that is produced in response to other verbal behavior but is not similar in form to the preceding verbalizationEarly in development, intraverbals occur in response to verbalizations produced by someone else As a child's verbal repertoire matures, intraverbals may also occur in response to the child's own prior verbalizations Examples of Intraverbals A classic example of intraverbal is Freud’s “free association” test used in psychoanalysis in which the therapists says words such as “mother,” “father,” “love,” “hate,” and so on, and asks the patient to reply with the first thought they have.Answering questions such as "Where do you live?" "What's one plus one?" or filling in the blank as when children respond, "farm" after hearing "Old McDonald had a ..."D-14 Use listener training Begin with teaching the primary verbal operants such as mands, tacts, echoics, mimetics, &matching skillsProceed next with intraverbal training (see D-13, above).Shape direct listener responding of the listener, in response to verbal operants of the speakerExample of a language acquisition program that employs Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavioroTeaching 2-step instructions – combine instructions already learned and insert a delayoIn initial receptive language trials reinforce each correct responseoPrompts for vocalization should be indirect and brief, avoid requests: hello and holding up reinf, physical activities and singing are good to useoAssessment of receptive skills is done to determine if correct responding is under control of instruction, present instructions in random ordero1st 2 phases of vocal imitation training: increase vocal and temporal control does not need to be taught in orderoWhen teaching labeling, as you fade the volume of your voice, rather than not saying those prompts the students matches your voice volume – address by sudden termination of prompts and reducing the length bc it removes the stimulus controlling the vocaloTeaching to speak quietly – say quietly with relaxed demeanoroAfter intermixing loud and quiet SDs request in normal tone for loud or quiet oAddressing echolalia – whisper question and say prompt loudly or teach student to say “I don’t know”oSay “what is it” at normal volume and fade level of prompt when teaching labelingoWhen teaching labeling, begin by presenting SD in low voice volume then immediately prompting correct responseoEvents that positively reinforce goal achievement are varied and con include tangibles or simply the opportunity to see one’s progress on a graph. Determine your reward before or at the time you determine your goalsoDecreasing problem behavior – Identify private events that are precursors to the problem behavioroReceptive – stimulus is verbal, response is nonverbaloExpressive – stimulus is nonverbal, response is verbaloConversational- stimulus is verbal, response is verbalo1st step in conducting a receptive training trial is to keep the direction short and simple and prompt if necessaryoReceptive skills that involve object manipulation are more easily learned because they include visual cues and motor movements are easier for the teacher to promptoIn the beginning phases of imitating sounds teach sounds that can be prompted, the student tends to make, and which are heard in the environmentoIn phase 3 of imitating sounds if a student fails to make an imitation use physical promptsoIn phase 3 of imitating sounds it is good to face the teacher so that the child can see the teacher’s face and because it is easier for the teacher to promptoIn phase 2 brining vocalizations under temporal control, differentially reinforce vocalizations that are in response to your vocalizations and put all other vocalizations on extinctionoIn phase 3 imitating sounds you can prompt imitation by labeling objectsForm and function of VB-Form = topography-Function= cause of responseDefining VB-behavior that is reinforced by mediation of another person’s behavior-defined by function rather than formSpeaker and listener-social interactions btw speaker and listeners, whereby speakers gain access to rft and controls environment through listeners-listener must learn how to reinforce speaker’s VBUnit of analysis-verbal operant: type or class of behavior that is distinct from a particular response instance-verbal repertoire: set of verbal operantsElementary verbal operants:-mand, tact, echoic, transcription, textualTextual-reading: without any implications that reader understands-point to point correspondence but not formal similarity-produce gcr and controlled by ante stimuliTranscription-writing and spelling words that are spoken-p-p correspondence, but not formal similarity Role of listener-not that important- most of what is classified as listener bx (thinking, understanding) is more correctly identified as speaker bx, often speaker and listener reside within same skin-fxns as a sd for vb=audience=sd in the presence of which vb is rx and in the presence of which is strong-mediator of rxIdentifying verbal operants-ask questions regarding the relevant controlling variables-controlled by mo? Controlled by sd? Is sd nonverbal? Is sd verbal? Is there p-p correspondence? Is there formal similarity?Analyzing complex vbAutomatic reinforcement:-some bx is maintained, strengthened, weakened by its response products which have rx or px effects-has sign role in acquis and maint of vb-2 stages:1. Neutral verbal stimulus is paired with existing form of rx = cond rx2. Vocal response produces an auditory response that may sound somewhat like rx words = fxn as rxPrivate events-bx that occurs within skin- thinking-hard to analyze-4 ways that young persons are taught to tact private events1. Public behavior: observable stimulus accompanies a private stimulus2. Collateral responses: use collateral responses that reliably occur with private stimuli3. Common properties: may learn to tact, temporal, geometrical, or descriptive properties of objects and then generalize to private stimuli4. Response reduction: tact features of own bodies such as movements and positions = these can acquire control over verbal responsesMultiple controlConvergent: occurrence of single verbal response is a fxn of more than one variableDivergent: single ante variable affects strength of multipleThematic and formal: Thematic = mands, tacts, intra, and involve diff response topographies controlled by a common variable. Formal = echoics and textuals and are controlled by a common variable with Point-to-point correspondenceMultiple audiences; diff audiences may evoke diff response formsElaborating multiple control: -convergent mc occurs in most instances of vb-audience is always a source-convergent occurs more with mo and nonverbal stimuliAutoclitic-speakers own vb fxns as an sd or mo for additional speaker vb-vb about speaker’s own vbPrimary and secondary VOPrimary: vb about speaker’s own vb MO and SD are present and affect primary verbal operantSecondary: speaker observers the primary controlling variables of own vb and disposition to emit primary vbAutoclitic tact-informs listener of some nonverbal aspect of the primary verbal operant and is therefore controlled by nonverbal stimuliAutoclitic mand-mand listener to react in some specific way to the primary verbal operantDeveloping autoclitic relation -asked to explain controlling variables-diff reinforcement-autoclitic affects the listener by indicating either a property of the speaker’s bx or circumstance responsible for that propertyApplications of VBLanguage assessment: most lang assess does not account for mands. Should analyze each VO and get a test from a speech pathologistLang intervention: should estb each operantD-15 Identify punishersPositive punishment: stimulus added after behavior that reduces future occurrence or frequency of the behavior.Negative punishment: stimulus removed after behavior that reduces future occurrence or frequency of the behavior.D-16 Use Positive and Negative Punishment (last resort only!)A. identify and use punishers-when a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases future frequency of similar responsesDistinguish from neg rx: recognize opposite effects the 2 contingencies have on future freq, realizing that 2 diff bx must be involved bc the same consequence cannot serve as pos punish and neg rx for the same bxDiscriminative stimulus for px: stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a decrease probability of occurring than it does in its absence as a result of response-contingent punishment in the presence of the stimulusRecovery: bx that is no longer punished will most likely return to previous levels and may exceed itPunisher: a stimulus change that immediately follows the occurrence of a bx and decreases future frequency of that type of bx. Unconditioned = no history, Conditioned = based on contingency history, generalized conditioned = paired with many punishersEffectiveness of punisherImmediacy: as soon as bx occursIntensity/magnitude: increase magnitude, increase suppression; increase intensity, decrease recovery; gradually increasing intensity doesn’t workSchedule maximized by continuous scheduleReinf target bx: need to reduce rxReinf alternative bx: punishment is more effective when alt bx is reinfD-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment?Punishment should be used consistently for every instance of the problem behaviorPositive Punishment Interventions:Reprimands: -eye contact and firm grasp on shoulders and in close proximity = increased effect-when used more freq than positive attention may serve as a reinf-should use sparingly in combo with frequent praise and antrResponse Blocking-physically intervening as soon as person begins to emit the problem bx to prevent or block completion of responseContingent exercise-perform a response that is not topographically related to the problem bxOvercorrection-required to engage in effortful bx that is directly or logically related to the problemRestitutional: return env to original state and then somePos practice: perform correct form of bx or bx incompatible with problem bx repeatedlyGuidelines for Overcorrection1. Immediately in a calm voice tell person misbehaved and need to correct it. Do not criticize or scold2. Provide explicit verbal instructions describing overcorrection3. Implement sequence as soon as possible4. Monitor learner throughout, provide minimal prompts5. Provide minimal feedback for correct responses6. Provide praise, antr, etc each time learner spontaneously performs appropriate bxContingent electrical stim-presentation of a brief electrical stimulus immediately following an occurrence of problem bxGuidelines for effective use-select eff and app punishers punish assessment: measure avoidance of stimuli use punishers of sufficient quality and magnitude use varied punishers-deliver punisher at beginning of sequence-punish each instance of bx initially-gradually shift to intermittent- bx needs to be sign low level first and combine with extinction-use mediation with a response to punish delay-supplement punish with a complementary intervention: dra, ext, antecedent strategies-be prepared for negative side effects-record graph and evaluate data dailyEthical considerations of punishment:-right to safe and humane treatment-least restrictive alternative-right to effective treatment-punish policy and procedural safeguards – need to adoptTime Out-withdrawl of opportunity to earn pos Rx or the loss of access to pos rx for a specified time, contingent access to pos rx for a specified time, contingent on occurrence of bx need:-discrepancy btw time-in and time-out env, response contingent loss of access to reinf, resultant decrease in future frequency of the bx-greater the diff btw reinf value in the time in and absence of that value during time out = increase effectivenessNonexclusion T/O-participant is not completely removed physically from time in setting-Planned Ignoring – social rx are removed for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of an inapp bx-Withdrawl of specific positive reinforcer-contingent observation- repositioned within an existing setting to observe ongoing activities but access to reinforcement is lost-time out ribbon- have ribbon = eligible to earn reinforcementExclusion T/ORemoved from env for a specific period, contingent on occurrence of target bxTime out room: any confined space outside the participant’s normal educational or treatment env that is devoid of pos rx and in which the person can be safely placed for a time period. 3 adv:-opportunity to acquire rx during t/o is eliminated-room assumes conditioned aversive properties -decrease risk of hurting studentsPartition Time out: person remains within time-in setting, but is restricted by a partition-Disadv: may still receive reinf from other students and negative view by parentsHallway T/O leave and sit in hallway-disadv: obtain reinf from multitude of sources = increase likelihood of escapeDesirable aspects of TO-ease of application-acceptability – appropriate, fair, and effective-rapid suppression of bx-combined applicationsUsing effectively-reinf and enriching the time-in env-define bx leading to T/O-defining procedures for duration of T/O-Define exit criteria- should have improved bx condition should not discontinue t/o if inappropriate bx is occurring-deciding on nonexclusion or exclusions T/O-explain T/O rules-obtain permission-apply consistently-evaluate effect-consider other options-legal and ethical issuesResponse Cost-form of punishment in which the loss of a specified amount of Rx occurs, contingent on an inappropriate bx and results in decrease problem bxDesirable aspects-moderate to rapid decrease in bx in 2 to 3 sessions-convenience-should not be used as the sole approach to modifying bx bc it does not teach new bxMethodsFines: fine a specific amount of pos rxBonus RC: have NCR available specifically for RCCombine with pos Rx: earn tokens for appropriate bx and lose tokens for inappropriate bxCombine with group contingency: whole group loses specific amount of RXUsing effectively:-state target bx and fine-increase fine, increase severity of bx-fine should be large enough to suppress future occurrence of bx but not so large as to bankrupt the person-determining immediacy: should be immediate-RC or bonus RC? – least aversive = should do bonus RC first. Bonus is less likely to lead to outbursts, non compliance, and combative bx may be suppressed more quickly with regular RC-ensuring Rx reserve: manage ratio of points earned to points lost-recognize potential for unplanned outcomes – RC may reinf bx or refusal to give rx-avoid overuse of RC-keeping recordsConsiderations:-may increase aggressiveness-avoidance: setting may become aversive-calls antr to undesirable bx (may be rx)-unpredictability – side effects D-18 Use Extinction Identify possible reinforcers maintaining behavior and use extinction ?Procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued. ?A behavior maintained by positive reinforcement is put on extinction when the reinforcing stimulus is no longer forthcoming as a consequence of the behavior (includes attention, access to tangibles)?A behavior maintained by negative reinforcement is put on extinction when the stimulus is no longer terminated or removed after the behavior (includes demands)?Behavior maintained by sensory consequences is put on extinction when the sensory consequence is masked or removed (wearing a glove)Variables affecting resistance:-intermittent rx more resistant-EO strength-# magnitude and quality – longer = more resistant-# of previous extinction trials – more trials = less resistant-response effort – increase response effort, decrease resistantUsing effectively-withholding all rx maintaining problem bx-withhold reinf consistently-combine ext with other procedures-using instructions: describe procedure to student-plan for aggression – still ignore-increase number of extinction trials- accelerates extinction process-guard against unintentional ext.-maintaining ext. decreased behaviorsWhen not to use-imitation – if other people will imitate-extreme behaviorD-19 Use combinations of reinforcement with punishment and extinctionEthical standard: always use reinforcement procedures when using punishment or extinctionTeach replacement behavior (functional equivalence, skill acquisition)D-20 response Independent (time based) schedules of reinforcement NCR-When to use – not with dangerous behavior where the reinforcement is pain, hallucinogen etc-may be implemented using presentation of a potential reinforcer on a FT or VT schedule (response-independent of occurrence of target behavior)-eliminates the contingent relation btw the target behavior and the stimulus presentation while allowing any effects of the stimulus alone to be detected-for research purposes- should entail minimum of five phases: abcbc (a = Baseline, b=NCR, c=CR)-can produce persistent responding, perhaps due to reinforcement early in the NCR condition, or bc of similar MOs and antecedent stimulus conditions resulting in persistent responding which can be a limitation-decrease in behavior because reinforcement is available freely and frequently (behavior becomes unnecessary and irrelevant to obtain same amount or frequency of reinforcement).-Pos Rft – social, primary rft., access to items, activities, actions, etc.-Automatic rft.- leisure items-neg rft- give break on a schedule regardless of behaviorUsing effectively-amount and quality of stimuli with known reinf properties influence effectiveness of ncr-most treatments include ext-reinf preferences can change during intervention-Functional beh assess: dependent on correct identification of maintaining rft.Emphasizing NCR: present > amount of stimuli with known reinforcing properties greater than rate of reinforcement without ncrTime based: determine by setting at or below baselineProbability based: determined by conditional probabilities of rft. given behavior and no behavior Thinning schedule: only do after initial schedule leads to decrease in bxSetting terminal criteria usually arbitraryConsiderations:ADV: easy to apply, creates a learning env packaged with ext may decrease ext induced bursts, could maintain app bxDISADV: free access may decrease adaptive bx, chance pairing with problem bx may rx, NCR escape may disrupt instructional processD-21 Use differential reinforcement: used to refine topography, frequency, or duration of existing behaviors. One member of the response class is reinforced and other members are not. ?Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)- emit a high rate of responses in specified time, then reinforcement is producedDifferential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) – emit a low rate of responses in specified time, then reinforcement is produced-use with bx that occurs too frequently but don’t want to eliminateFull-session-Rx is delivered at end of instructional or treatment session if the target bx occurred at a number = to or < than criterionInterval-provide rx at end of each intervalSpaced responding-delivers a rx following a response that is separated by at least a minimum amount of time from previous responsesGuidelines:-Limitations: not good for reducing bx quickly, not good for dangerous bx, must focus on inapp bxChoose most appropriate DRL: use interval or full session when it is ok for bx to reach 0-use bl data to guide IRT limits on selection of initial response-gradually thin schedule-provide figure to the learner – helps monitor rate of response for learnerDifferential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – occurs whenever a specific behavior is not emitted during an interval. Designed to decrease behavioroGuidelines: determine DRO intervaloProcedure for increasing intervaloProvide reinf contingent upon 0 occurrences of the target behavior during the intervaloCombine with other procedures oInterval should be lengthened in small increments by a constant time, proportion or based on performance of learnerInterval DROFixed: apply omission req at end of successive time intervals – estb interval, reinf if no bx at end, start interval over if problem bxVariable: deliver rx contingent on the absence of bx during intervals of varying and unpredictable durationsMomentary DRO- apply omission req at the end of interval onlyGuidelines-interval is probably better than momentary-limitations: may rx other undesirable bx-set intervals that assure freq reinf-do not inadverntly rx other undesirable bx-gradually increase dro interval-extend to other settings and times of day-combine with other proceduresDifferential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) – reinforcement is presented when a specified alternative behavior is emitted. Alternative behavior should be in learners repertoire oSubtypes: DRI and DRCoDRC is a subtype of DRA refers to communicative behaviors that serve same function as problem behaviorDifferential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – reinforcement is presented when a specified behavior that is incompatible with the target behavior is emitted. -weaken problem bx while strengthening acceptable bx-may promote educ, social, and personal skill dev-practicioner controls development of app bx and measures both problem bx and desired replacement bxGuidelines-select incompatible/alt bx = already exists in repertoire, requires less effort, being emitted at rate prior to DRI/DRA intervention that will provide sufficient opportunities for rx, is likely to be rx in natural env-select reinforcers that are powerful and can be delivered consistently-reinforce immediately and consistently-withhold rft for problem bx-combine with other proceduresE. Specific Behavior-Change Procedures E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as:?Contextual or Ecological Variables:oDoes not include consequent strategiesoAntecedent manipulation such as setting increase env or altering routines to promote desired behavior change: reduce noise level, increase response effort for problem behavior, enrich environment, change schedules oSetting event exerts general control over antecedent behavior interactionsoReinforcing event follows a response and increases likelihood of occurring ?Motivating Operations: oany change in the environment that alters the effectiveness of some object or event as reinforcement and simultaneously alters the momentary frequency of the behavior that has been followed by that reinforcement.OIncrease MO for desired behavioroDecrease MO for problem behavior?Discriminative Stimuli: oMake SDs for desired behavior presentoEliminate SDs for undesirable behavioroStimulus in the presence of which behavior has been reinforced = SDE-02 Use discrimination Training procedures - Reinforce a specified response in the presence of one stimulus (Sd) - do not reinforce the response in the presence of other stimuli (S-Delta) - For example: you are teaching a child to point to an apple when you say “apple” when you place apple, banana and orange. Reinforce pointing to apple when you say “apple” and do not reinforce pointing to banana or orange (See p. 694 in Cooper et. al, Applied Behavior Analysis, 2007, Pearson) E-03 Use instructions and rules:-most effective when: behavior is under instructional control, provided at an optimal rate (that which the indv can understand)E-04 Use contingency contracting oMay work because may be affected by people in environment who can prompt and reinforce behavior related to the contract, or rule-governed bx, or contract serves as response prompt for effective delivery of rx, may fxn as response prompt for avoiding “guilt”oBehavior must be observable and a clear criteria for completion specifiedoRefers to: negotiated goals and procedures of a beh program or to a document that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to or delivery of a specified rewardoAdvantagesoMore likely to followoContractee is more likely to negotiate a less aversive consequenceoHas negotiation provisoo Makes contingency explicitoStructures relationshipoIncreases likelihood of reinforcement deliveredoDisadvantagesoCannot be used with individuals without cognitive skillsoImbalance of authority may compromise contractee’s sense of ownershipoResearch does not exist to support over imposed contingencyoEssential componentsoTask description present and in observable termsoWhen task will be accomplishedoTask completion criteria (when and how well) oReward descriptionoHow much rewardoReward delivered after task completionoReward amount appropriateoA document that specifies the relationship between a task and a contingent rewardoConsists of two major parts: task (who, what, when, and how well) and reward (who, what, when, and how much)oChildren can be taught to use as part of self-managementoTask must already be in repertoire and under stimulus controloMany successful contracts tend to terminate automatically as naturally occurring reinforcers begin to maintain the taskoGradually turning the management of the contract over to the child is another method of terminating the contractDeveloping-all parties involved should come up with contract-have a meeting, identify tasks, identify rewards, choose task and write contractGuidelines-consider nature of desired bx change verbal and conceptual skills of participant, individual’s relationship with person’s making the contract, and available resources-bx should be in person’s antrummin-person should be able to come under control of visual or oral statements of the contract-should not use with people who refuseEvaluating contracts:-objective eval using bl and treatment data-may need to adjust contract if not enough changeE-05 Use independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies:oTarget student who is threatened by his peers for disruptive outbursts – earns reward for group for no outbursts, nothing said if there is an outburstDependent group oriented contingency- oreward for entire group is contingent upon behavior of one or few indvoused to promote desired behavioroused when you want to change behavior of single individual who responds well to peer pressureIf a single individual is sabotaging team remove that opportunity by adding an individual contingency or removing from G.O.C.Independent –oSame contingency applies to all members but reinforcement is contingent on each individualInterdependent-oReinforcement for group is contingent upon group as a wholeoLottery: group member’s probability of winning the single reinf is function of number of beh contingent ticketsoHero procedure: particular individual can become hero by earning a reward for the entire groupoGOC can save time, is at least as effective and is perhaps more economicaloGOC is useful when it is impractical to initiate an individual contingencyoCan be used when practitioner needs to resolve a serious disruptive beh quicklyoMay able to capitalize peer influence or peer monitoringoCan be combined with individual contingencyoMay exert harmful peer pressureoMay increase likelihood of scapegoatingoIndividual beh may be maskedoPractitioner should assess the limits of student performanceImplementing Group contingency:-choose eff reward-determine b to change and any collateral bx that may be affected-set appropriate perf criteria-combine with other procedures when appropriate-select most appropriate group contingency-monitor indv and group perfE-06 Use Stimulus Equivalence proceduresEmergence of accurate responding to untrained and no reinforced stimulus-stimulus relations, following the rx of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations-define by testing for reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivityReflexivity: A=A identify identical stimulus. In the absences of training and reinf of a response, will select stimulus that is matched to itselfSymmetry: A=B, B=A reversibility of sample stimulus and comparisonTransitivity: A=B, A=C, therefore B=C stimulus-stimulus relation that emerges as a product of training 2 other stimulus-stimulus relationStimulus equivalence implies that 2 antecedent stimuli occasion the same response, therefore one stimulus could be substituted for other stimulusMatching to sample is used to test for Stimulus Equivalence (must have transitivity and symmetry across stimulus classes).E-07 Plan for behavioral contrast effects-occurs when rate of 2 behavior change as function of a change in the schedule of reinf for one of the behaviorE-08 Use the matching law and recognize factors influencing choice Choice behavior matches relative rates of reinforcement provided in choice situations (2 alternatives, or more, each providing a distinct schedule of reinforcement) in a concurrent schedule of reinforcementMatching Formula: B1/B1+B2 = Rft.1/Rft.1+Rft.2Where B = Rate of Behavior; Rft. = Rate of Reinforcement; And 1 & 2 indicate the choice (response) option as source of reinforcement in a concurrent schedule. E-09 Arrange high-probability re quest sequences (behavioral momentum)-Present high probability responses followed by low probability responses-increase compliance and may decrease slownessUsing effectively:-select from current repertoire-present requests rapidly-acknowledge compliance-use potent reinforcement E-10 Use the Premack Priniciple -reinforcement needs to be activityPositive Reinf: response is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus and as a result similar responses occur more frequently in the futurePositive Reinforcer: stimulus presented as a consequence and responsible for increase in responding-a reinf does not affect the response it follows. Reinforcement can only increase frequency with which similar responses are emitted in the future-immediacy is important-when human bx is apparently affected by long-delayed consequences. The change is accomplished by virtue of the human’s complex social and verbal history and should not be thought of as an instance of the simple strengthening of bx by reinforcement-not circular reasoning bc 2 components of response-consequence relation. Can be separated allowing the delivery of a consequence to be manipulated to determine whether it increases the frequency of the bx it follows. Reinforcement describes an empirically demonstrated fxnal relation btw a stimulus change immediately following a response and an increase the future frequency of similar responses-reinforcement makes ante stimulus conditions relevant-reinforcement depends on motivationE-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new conditioned reinforcers and punishersR ? Sr+,- (positive or negative reinforcement) The consequence can be an Unconditioned Reinforcer or Conditioned Reinforcer (CR)CR ? established by NS-UR pairing after the Response (behavior). The behavior is reinforced when followed by the Unconditioned Reinforcer which can be paired with a Neutral Stimulus that is presented after the response, but prior to the Unconditioned Reinforcer (UR). The same procedure can be used to establish a conditioned punisher. Conditioned Reinforcing Stimulus and Unconditioned Reinforcer (pairings establishes the NS as a Conditioned Reinforcer) The Response can be maintained by either the CR or UR (usually one is chosen for a given behavior Operant Behavior is said to be “emitted” by the organism and depends upon a contingent relationship between the response and the consequence E-12 Use errorless learning proceduresThis is a method of teaching, which, as the name indicates, does not allow for errors. Each trial results in success and reinforcement for the learner Errorless learning techniques are quite varied and there are many possibilities. Using physical guidance (hand-over-hand, and graduated guidance) with prompt fading, least-to-most prompts, most-to-least prompts, and other cues such as stimulus shaping and stimulus fading, proximity cues, etc. Also known as “Graduated Guidance”Skinner was a proponent of using errorless learning methods to prevent “chaining in” of errorsSidman used errorless learning methods for teaching the pre-requisite matching skills for his work on stimulus equivalenceE-13 Use the matching law and recognize factors influencing choice Behaviors occur based on schedule of reinforcement Behaviors with denser schedule of reinforcement will occur more often than other behavior Frequency of behaviors in a response class are a function of their relative rate of reinforcement-concurrent schedules of reinforcement produce 2 response patterns (Note: See matching formula in E-08, above)F. Behavior-Change SystemsF-01 Use self-management strategiesoInvolves at least two responses:oThe response to be controlledoThe responses emitted in order to control the identified responseoControlling response themselves are a function of the person’s history of reinf and thus are subject to exp analysisoPersonal and systematic application of beh change strategies that result in the desired modification of one’s own behoIf the desired change in the target beh does not occur, self management has not been demonstrated. Self management has not occurred if the change in the target beh would have occurred without the self management responsesoAdvantagesoInstances of important beh can be missed by external agentsoEffective at extending generalizoSome beh do not lend themselves to external agentoStudents with self management skills can help operate a more efficient classroomoCan sometimes be used to control behaviors not affected by weak outcomesoSome people perform better under self selected standardsoOne of the ultimate goals of educationoSupports and gives meaningful practice for other parts of the curriculumoCan be fun and it feels goodoStimulus control techoProvide extra cues for desired beh – response promptsoConfront oneself with stimuli that successfully control the behoSituational inducement can be usedoStimulus conditions for the beh can be restricted-manipulate Mos – make things more/less reinf-perform initial steps of bx chain: behave in a manner that ensures being confronted later w/a sd that reliably evokes the bx-removing items necessary for undesired bx-dedicate a specific env for a desired bxoSelf-monitoringoRequires person to observe and respond to beh that he is trying to changeoMore effective when followed by period of outside consequencesoMore effective if: behavior is recorded immediately, recorded early in response sequence, effective prompts cue the person to observe and record, a permanent product of beh or a record of its occurrence is made for evaluation-self-evaluation is when you compare performance with predetermined goals-can do self monitoring with reinf-works because it evokes self-evaluative statements that serve to either rx or px bxoDelivery of consequencesoCan be done using self deliveryoShould ensure that the intended rewards are readily accessible, bootleg reinforcers should be eliminated, punishing consequences are not so severe that the ind will not be consistent oGuidelines for effectiveoConvert hard to follow weak rules into easy to follow strong rulesoBuild in periodic accountabilityoMake a public commitment to change the target behoSet up a self management exchange with someone elseoIf necessary, turn over operation of the contingency to someone elseoFor self management to work:oIndividual must be able to identify target behaviorsoUnderstand punishment/reinforcementoUnderstand bootleg reinforcementoBe able to identify effective reinforcersoBe able to set appropriate criteria for consequencesoBe able to consequate the behavioroTarget behavior or outcome needs to be operationalized, data collection in frequency format is not necessary and data can be collected on the target behavior or its outcomeoRelapse can be caused byoInadequately defined target behoGoal being set too far in futureoFocusing on too many beh at onceoLack of rewards for desired behoSmall, cumulative effects of exhibiting undesired beh-Applications of self-mgmt-living more effective and efficient life-breaking bad habits and acquiring good ones-accomplishing diff tasks-provides imm responses-achieving personal goalsOther tacticsSelf-instruction; self-generated verbal responses covert or over that fxn as response prompts for desired bxHabit reversal: self monitor habits and interrupt the bx chain as early as possible by engaging in a bx that ins incompatible with problem bxSelf-directed diazotization; relaxing when anxiousMassed practice: performing undesired bx again and again = decreased bxF-02 Token Economy procedures, including levels systemsoThree aspects define a token economyoBehaviors are specifiedoA medium of exchange is selectedoBackup items are purchasedoTokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers that are paired with a wide variety of backup reinforcersoReasons for effectiveness:-Tokens can bridge the time gap between the beh and the delivery of the backup reinforcer-Tokens can bridge the setting gap between the behavior and the delivery of the backup reinforcer-Management of satiation and deprivation becomes less critical for the behavior analystoToken value can be enhanced by increasing the number of luxury items, decreasing the value of tokens and increasing the cost of backup reinforcers, or by auctioning offoFading out token economyoInclude pairing token presentation with praiseoIncrease number of responses needed to earn tokensoDecrease amount of time during the day that token system is operativeoIncreasing the number of activities and privileges used in reinfoIncreasing the cost of luxury reinfoFading physical evidence of the tokensoCould switch to a less intrusive level systemoIf a student says he doesn’t care about the token system, act nonchalant and walk awayoFading can occur across several dimensions including: physical, proximity, temporal relation, and formLevel systems:-participants move up a hierarchy of levels contingent on meeting specific performance criteria with respect to target bxDesigning economy1. Select tokens2. Identify target bx3. Select a menu of backup rx : do not deny access to basic privileges4. Establish a ratio of exchange: keep initial ratio low, as token-earning b and income increase, increase the cost of backup items/devalue tokens/and increase number of items. With increased earnings, increase number of luxury items, increase prices of necessary backup items more than luxuryImplementing token economy:-Initial token training: give an example of system, model procedure for delivery, model procedure for token exchangeOngoing training: should follow guidelines for effective use of rx procedures should be clear and followed consistently, remind student of how tokens work, focus should be on building desirable bxManagement issues:-keep tokens in container-prevent bootlegging-do not let students buy on credit-require to buy every once and a whileEvaluation-single subject-social validityFurther considerations:-intrusive: time, energy, and resources-self-perpetuating: may not want to remove because of results-cumbersome-federal mandates: make sure to maintain independent evaluationF-03 Use Direct instruction?Progression through direct instructionoExplain what they will be learningoModeloLead through taskoHave students do without assistanceoCorrect errors immediatelyoProvide closure by tying togetheroAssign indept work to provide extra practice?Brief placement test is used to determine placement. Appropriate placement in groups is necessary to ensure that students are not frustrated and begin learning quickly?DI is:oHighly structuredoLeads to curricula with strong empirical foundoIncludes: scripted lesson plans, small group instruction, fast paced instruction, grouping based on achievement, freq assess (every 10 lessons), coaches/facilitators to support implementation?DI scripts are carefully designed and empirically validated to ensure efficient learning, therefore need to be closely followed. Special needs are addressed by precise presentations of SDs followed by responding that leads to rapid learning.?Presenting at fast pace keeps everyone on task, provides abundance of learning opportunities, results in substantial achievement gains?Uses prepared, scripted curriculum and very specific behavior techniques?Project follow through: largest education study ever conducted 1970s, DI was superior to all other programs, despite this DI not widely adopted?Asking question guidelines:oGet attention of groupoAsk question before selecting studentoBefore selecting get 50% hands or eyesoDo not rephrase responsesoDo not ask students who you think will not answer correctlyoRepeat question or give hints when incorrectoSelection is random?Choral responding: promotes group cohesion. Enables teachers to frequently monitor performance, provides high rate of practicing correct behF-04 Use Precision TeachingThe method of instruction called Precision Teaching was first formulated by Ogden Lindsley, who left basic behavioral research at Harvard Medical School in 1964 to develop Precision Teaching at the University of Kansas.Precision teaching is adjusting the curricula for each learner to maximize the learning shown on the learner’s personal standard celeration chart. The instruction can be by any method or approach.For example, the most effective applications of Precision Teaching have been when it is combined with Direct Instruction . The materials are derived from Direct instruction and the curricular change decisions, fluency aims and one-minute practice sessions are from Precision teaching.The precision comes from making curricula changes based on changes in the weekly learning of each student. The weekly learning changes are seen on standard celeration charts. The frequencies of correct and incorrect responses of each subject are recorded daily on separate standard charts.Because of the normal daily variation in performance frequency, it takes one to two weeks to project a learning course and to determine a change in learning.“The key components of Precision Teaching are: to set time-based mastery criteria for each curriculum step, to provide daily opportunities for practice and timed measurement, to chart performance on a graph called the Standard Behavior [Celeration] Chart and to change procedures when the chart shows they're not working.” (Pennypacker, Koenig and Lindsley, 1972; White and Haring, 1980). Four foundation principles of Precision Teaching :The child knows bestFocus on observable behaviors Use frequency measures to monitor performance Use a standardized graphical displayCurriculum objectives broken into skill steps (component to composite skills)Skill steps are taught and practiced, peer tutoring/paired learning often occurs Daily, 10-20 minutes for skill lesson, practice, skill measurement and chartingInstruction builds in direct engagement in the skill; argues that most general instruction does not engage the learner in the targeted skill for enough direct instructionResults of charting lead to skill or instructional changes or directions, helps to know when learner is ready to move onThe primary goal of instruction is to build fluency with a skill; fluency implies readiness to expand understanding and comprehension“REAPS” Benefits of Precision Teaching:Retention – meaningful recall of infoEndurance- of quality recall over timeApplication - over settings, incorporating simple into complex skillsPS – Performance Standards, or the targeted benchmark set for fluent behaviorData are plotted on the Standard Celeration ChartWhite & Haring (1980) recommend that "If the correct rate of a skill is higher than the error rate and is accelerating (regardless of how the error rate might be changing), the skill is probably appropriate for one or more of the instructional procedures" (p. 243). Given this learning picture, the decision would be to continue with the current program.F-05 Use Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)oDeveloped by Fred KelleroDT involves repeated presentation of discriminative stimuli and predetermined consequenceoIncludes questions that delineate what the learner should know when finished with the programoProctors score test and give feedbackoFailing to achieve mastery results in learner having to do againoLearners demonstrate mastery after studying one or 2 weeks of materialoPSI –Involves more record keeping and administration and lectures are used less for teaching and more for motivation and demonstrationoLearners in a psi course go through material at own paceF-06 Use incidental teaching techniques?Set up env to increase learning and interaction?Use different prompts, presentation methods, etc to decrease errors?Can also walk away, make communication easier, prompt hierarchyF-07 Use functional communication trainingFunctional Communication Training -establishes an appropriate communicative bx to compete with problem bx evoked by an EO-new communicative response produces reinf that has maintained the problem bx making the communicative response fxnally equivalent to the problem bx-2 parts: complete a FBA to identify the stimuli with known rx properties that maintain problem bx and use those stimuli as rx to develop an alternative bxEffective use-dense schedule of rx-decrease use of verbal prompts-behavior reduction procedures-combine extinction-schedule thinningF-08 Use augmentative communication systems PECS, Sign language, Automation such as “apps” and tablet software with pictures or words, Text-to-speech software based on learner need and skills. Could be due to inability to speak, developmental disability, physical impairment (egs.: Deaf, blind, other impairment or disability).Section II: Client-Centered ResponsibilitiesG. Identification of the ProblemG-01 Review records and available data at the outset of the case This is usually the initial step in conducting a descriptive functional assessment G-02 Consider biological/medical variables that may be affecting the clientNeed to consider and rule out medical or other physical or biological factors affecting behavior being assessed for interventionBehavior analysts should refer to a physician to evaluate or rule these out before developing a behavior intervention plan, or check existing, current reports from an MD who evaluated the individual.G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of the client in order to identify the referral problemCollect baseline dataConduct indirect functional assessment (interview tools)Conduct direct functional assessment (direct observation, may include ABC chart, Scatter plot, or other observational method)G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language Ethical standard: write reports, or describe results in meetings with non-behavior analysts using language that is easily understood by individuals to whom you are reporting the results (egs. Parents, teachers, administrators, etc.)Avoid technical terms or “jargon” with such audiences G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior –analytic terms.Define behavior in observable and measurable terms-should be objective, clear, and concise-valid if it enables observers to capture every instance of every aspect of the behavior that the complainer is concerned with and none other-reliable if it enables tow or more observers to record the same occurrences and nonoccurrencesoShould not be defined by beh of othersoDo not add info of definition of beh that belongs elsewhere such as when beh occursoFunctional Definition: describes the behavior in terms of the function it servesoTopographical definition: describes beh according to its formoObjectivity: refers to measure of behavior or changes in environment being in observable termsDefining Target BxOperational: provides opportunity to obtain complete info about the bx’s occurrence and nonoccurrence and enables practitioner to apply procedures consistently and accurately- a good definition is operational and increases likelihood of an accurate and believable evaluation Function-based: designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely by their common effect on the env. Encompasses all relevant forms of the response class outcome or fxn is most important , often simpler and more conciseTopography based: identifies instances of bx by the shape or form of bx should be used when: do not have direct, reliable, or easy access to fxn, cannot rely on fxn bc each instance of bx does not produce relevant outcome or outcome might be produced by other events.Writing Definition-provides an accurate complete and concise description-states what is not included in the bx-should be objective- only observable characteristics of bx-should be clear- readable and unambiguous-should be complete- delinate boundariesSetting criteria for behavior change-assess performance of people judged to be highly competent-experimentally manipulate diff levels of performance to determine empirically which produces optimal results-should specify before treatment begins to serve as guideline for continuing treatment and to help eliminate biasG-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide services to one’s clientsThis refers to working with other disciplinary professionals such as speech therapists, occupational therapists, physicians, psychiatrists, teachers, etc. who are involved in providing servicesG-07 Practice within one’s limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and training, and or make referrals as necessaryEthical standard: behavior analysts do not provide services outside their scope of training in a formal program, and for which s/he has not received supervised experience in the area or problem presented by the potential client. A behavior analyst must receive formal training and supervised experience by a qualified professional in that area before providing services for that problem or concernReading some journal articles without the formal training and supervised experience is insufficient to provide services outside the behavior analyst’s training G-08 Identify and make environment changes that reduce the need for behavior analysis services Reduce noise level Rearrange environment Identify and modify or adjuct ecological variables such as instructional materials, methods, and settings Provide visual, written, and other antecedent cues or prompts regarding scheduled events and activitiesH. MeasurementH-01 Select a measurement system to obtain representative data given the dimensions of the behavior and the logistics of observing and recording:Select the most relevant data collection and measurement system for the type of behavior, setting and contextual considerations See A-01through A-07, above Event recording (count): should be used when the behavior is discrete with a definite beginning and end, should not occur at high rates, should not be a class of responses that can occur for extended time, opportunities for response and the observation times need to be constant across sessions, used to calculate rate/frequency, celeration, percentage, and trials to criterion?Rate/Frequency: preferred for free operants most sensitive measure, poor measure for DT or extended duration, most sensitive measure for repeatabilityCeleration: reveals dynamic patterns of bx change, min of 7 measures?Duration recording: should be used when concerned with length of a behavior, can measure target behaviors that are emitted at very high rates, establishes temporal dimension of behavior. Can use for bx that does not have discrete beginning and useful for task oriented or continuous bx?Latency recording: should be used when concerned with the length of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the occurrence of a behavior?Interval recording: used to measure the presence or absence of behavior can be partial or whole. Use partial interval when responses are too frequent to count each instance or they occur at various durations?Time sampling: records presence or absence of behavior immediately following specified time intervalsIRT: when time between responses or pacing is focusPercentage: cannot be used to assess proficiency or fluency need to report divsorTrials to criterion: useful for comparing relative efficiency of diff methods, assess change in rate of acquisition can determine cost of treatmentTopography: when desired outcomes are contingent on responses meeting certain topographies, form, style, or artfulnessMagnitude: when concerned with magnitude of bxH-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periodsConsider contextual variables, type of behavior, staffing, and optimal time frames for capturing data Short periods of time for observation and recording can be used when the observer is responsible for both instruction and data collectionWhen observers do not set the occasion for the occurrence of the target behavior, the rate of the behavior will determine the duration of the observation time-need to pick correct type of measurement -schedule should be standardized to provide an equal opportunity for occurrence and nonoccurrence of bx across sessions consistent environment conditions from one observation session to the next-when assessing the effect of treatment, most conservative observation times should be selected-when descriptive should select times that are most representative-need data scales that detect full range of performance-over or under sensitive measures may produce data that are misleadingH-03 Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant quantitative relationsConsider types of data displays appropriate for the type of data, audience factors, and relevant standards for plotting data collected.See A-10 through A-13, aboveLine graphs: multiple data paths on the same set of axes are used to facilitate comparison of: different dimensions of the same behavior, different behaviors of the same subject, measures of the same behavior of the same subject under different rapidly changing conditions, or same behavior of different subjects. Use for continuous measure of timeBar graphs: are used to display discrete data not related by an underlying dimension that can be used to scale the horizontal axis, to summarize and enable easy comparison of behavior across different conditions of an experiment. Used to display summaryCumulative graph: each data point represents the total number of responses emitted by the subject since measurement began, the steeper the slope of the data path the higher the response rate. Effective for displaying data when: the total number of responses made over time is important, the graph itself is to be used as a source of feedback, the target behavior can occur only once per measurement period, a fine analysis of a single instance or portions of data from an experiment is desired. Used for continuous and when variant scales of non-standard display do not impedeSemilogarithmic charts are scaled so that changes in behavior that are of equal proportion are represented by equal distances on the vertical axisTo graph number of instances/time period: use line, equal interval, standard celeration, or cumulativeStandard celeration best accommodates an analysis of variability high and low rates-Purpose & Benefits-plotting right away provides immediate access to ongoing visual record of bx-can explore variations in bx as they occur-judgmental aids: devices that help the practicioner interpret the results of study-conservative method for determining sign of bx change-enable and encourage indpt judgements as interpretations of the meaning and sign of bx change-can be effective sources of feedbackH-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend & variabilityUse visual analysis of data to determine progress, achieving performance criteria, and when to discontinue or modify the behavior plan, objectives, or instructional methodsH-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variablesConsider times of occurrence among variablesUse scatter plot (a.k.a. pattern analysis) to evaluate temporal relationsI. AssessmentI-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms-should be objective, clear, and concise-valid if it enables observers to capture every instance of every aspect of the behavior that of concern with and none other -reliable if it enables two or more observers to record the same occurrences and non-occurrencesoShould not be defined by behavior of othersoDo not add info of definition of behavior that belongs elsewhere such as when beh occursFunctional Definition: describes the behavior in terms of the function it servesTopographical definition: describes behavior according to its formoObjectivity: refers to measure of behavior or changes in environment being in observable termsDefining Target BehaviorOperational: provides opportunity to obtain complete info about the bx’s occurrence and nonoccurrence and enables practitioner to apply procedures consistently and accurately- a good definition is operational and increases likelihood of an accurate and believable evaluation Function-based: designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely by their common effect on the env. Encompasses all relevant forms of the response class outcome or fxn is most important , often simpler and more conciseTopography based: identifies instances of bx by the shape or form of bx should be used when: do not have direct, reliable, or easy access to fxn, cannot rely on fxn bc each instance of bx does not produce relevant outcome or outcome might be produced by other events.Writing Definition-provides an accurate complete and concise description-states what is not included in the bx-should be objective- only observable characteristics of bx-should be clear- readable and unambiguous-should be complete- delinate boundariesSetting criteria for behavior change-assess performance of people judged to be highly competent-experimentally manipulate diff levels of performance to determine empirically which produces optimal results-should specify before treatment begins to serve as guideline for continuing treatment and to help eliminate biasI-02 Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms Use definitions of environmental variables that can be directly observed and measuredUse observational definitions and assessment to determine effects on dependent variable Determine reliability and validity of effects of environmental variables based on definitions usedI-03 Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures Conduct Descriptive Assessments Indirect methods: Interview tools, records reviewDirect methods: Scatter plot (Pattern analysis); ABC Chart (Sequence analysis) Conduct Functional Analyses:?Can manipulate Antecedents and Consequences ?Can do an analogue assessment I-04 Design and implement the full range of functional assessment procedures. Purpose – to determine function of behaviorTo help develop the most effective behavior planFunctional behavior assessment- enables hypotheses about the relations among specific types of env events and bx. Designed to obtain info about fxns a bx serves for a person-topography offers little info, need to know conditions that account for bx and change thoseAltering Antecedent Variables- change or eliminate the motivating operation or Sd that trigger bxAltering Consequence Variable- eliminate source of Rx – change schedule or put on extinctionTeaching Alternative Bx-teach appropriate bx that serve same fxn-FBA can decrease reliance on default techniques and contribute to more effective interventions: reinf based interventions: reinf-based interventions are more likely than punishments more durable-FBA can contribute to prevention of difficultiesFBA Methods- Descriptive assessment (Direct and Indirect)- Functional analysis – most reliable method to determine function; only method that allows confirming of hypotheses Elements of a Functional Assessment Primary characteristics of and rationale for conducting a descriptive assessment?Purpose: to figure out what the problem is and how to fix it?Five phases: screening, definition and general quantification of problem behaviors, pinpointing target behaviors, monitoring progress, follow up eval-beh assess involves a variety of methods including direct obs, interviews, checklists, and tests to identify and define targets for behavior change-need to discover fxnAssess methods used- indirect = interviews and checklists, direct = tests and direct observationsFunctional (experimental) analysis Antecdents and consequences representing those in the person’s natural environment are arranged so that their separate effects on problem behavior can be observed and measuredreferred to as analog condictions to “simulate” antecedent and consequences similar to those occurring in the natural environment and are presented in a systematic manneranalog conditions are used for better control of environmenteach test condition contains an MO and a potential source of Rft. for problem behavior4 Conditions1. Play: control preferred activities available social attention provided and no demands, problem behavior is ignored2. Contingent Attention: attention withheld provided contingent on behavior3. Contingent escape: task demands are delivered, contingent break4. Alone: low level of stimulation, ignore problem behavior(5. Usually a “control” condition is included with person alone in room with reinforcing activities such as toys for a young child)Advantages-clear demonstration of variables that relate to occurrence of problem bx-result in reinforcement over punishmentLimitations-may temporarily interrupt, or increase the undesirable behavior to unacceptable levels-counterintuitive-dangerous behavior not amenable to intervention-contrived setting may not account for variable in natural environment (reactivity by client)-time, effort, and expertiseGather descriptive Data (select various methods, use various methods)Client interview: used to gather client’s description of problem behavior and what they hope to achieve. -Questionnaires and assessments are often done-often a first and important step-use what/when questions focus on env/abc, not why-use to formulate hypotheses-can ask client to take data on self that can be useful in selecting and defining target bx-others tend to answer in general responses, need to ask a variety of what, when, how questions to get more specific-can use to determine amount of involvement from significant othersDirect observation: with a behavior checklist that contains descriptions of various skills can be used to pinpoint target behaviors includes ABC data and Lag sequential-preferred method for determining target bx-ABC/anecdotal yield an overall description of client’s behavior within natural contextChecklists – can be used alone or with interviews to determine target behavior-provides descriptions of specific behavior and the conditions under which behavior should occurStandardized Tests-majority are not helpful for BA because they do not show what bx needs to be changed-most useful when they provide a direct measure of the person’s performance of the behavior of interest-curriculum based assess can be considered direct measures of student performance because the data that are obtained bear specifically on the daily tasksEcological assessment: takes into account the range of environmental factors. Large amount of info is gathered. Info is gathered about the person and the various environments in which that person lives and works: physiological, physical aspects of environment, interactions with others, home environment and rft. history. Need to determine how much assessment info is necessarySetting events: are antecedent stimulus events or contexts that may exert general control over behInstructional variables: choice, variety, natural vs contrived, easy vs hard, preferred vs nonpreferred, predictable vs non predictable, short vs long IRTDescriptive fxnal behavior assessment-direct observation of bx in natural occurring conditions-suggests hypotheses about fxn of bx-3 variations:1. ABC- continuous measure-record occurrences of the targeted problem bx and selected environmental events in the natural routine during a period of timeADV: use precise measures and may suggest relations, useful to designing fxnal analysis, does not disrupt routineLimits: difficult to detect correlations2. ABC narrative-recorded only when behaviors of interest are observed -recording is open ended= less time consumingLimits: might identify fxnal relations that do not exist, might not be accurate, best suited as means of gathering preliminary data3. Scatterplots-procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than othersADV: identify time periods during which problem behavior occursLimits: little known, subjective, accuracyIndirect functional behavior assessment-Interviews, checklist, rating scales, questionnairesADV- useful source of infoLimits – recall information, unbiased is hard to achieveConducting FBA1. Gather info via indirect and descriptive assessment2. Interpret info and formulate hypothesis3. Test using fxn analysis4. Develop intervention based on fxn Reactive effects-need to be aware of subject acting differnetly in presence of observer-be unobtrusive, repeated observations, and take into accountI-05 Organize, Analyze and Interpret observed data (select various methods, use various methods)See A-10 & A-11, H-03, aboveUse scatter plots I-06 Make recommendations that must be established, strengthened, and/or weakened to attain the stated intervention outcomes Use functionally equivalent replacement behavior (FERB)I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcersSee A-14 above. Pertains to use of reliable reinforcer assessment methodsJ. Intervention J-01 State target intervention outcomes in observable and measurable termsoSocial validity?OSocial validity of goals: relevance of target behavior to everyday lifeoClinical validity: ask obs or client, compare groups, examine social impact measures (collateral or side effects)oSocial validity of interventions: acceptability of behavior change proceduresoSocial validity of outcomes: magnitude of behavior changeoFunction of topographyoApp to use percentage of time only when duration is importantoCriterion: beh change required for attainmentoNeed to have: criterion, context, behavior, personJ-02 Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific evidenceFunctionally equivalentLeast restrictive, likely to be effective intervention J-03 Task Analysis (See D-07)J-04 client preferencesConduct preference assessmentsUse evidence-based reinforcement assessment methodsJ-05 Select intervention strategies based on the client’s current repertoiresBehaviors likely to be reinforced in individual’s natural environment by natural contingencies (aka “relevance of behavior rule”).J-06 Select intervention strategies based on supporting environmentsJ-07 Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraintsJ-08 Select intervention strategies based on the social validity of the interventionJ-09 Identify and address practical and ethical considerations when using experimental designs to demonstrate treatment effectivenessJ-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative to be established or increased (see 9-6)Use competing pathway model (O’neil, Horner, et. al., 1997).Use a Functionally Equivalent Replacement Behavior (FERB).J-11 Program for stimulus and response generalizationoStimulus generalization:oThe extent to which the learner improves his performance of the target behavior in environments different from the original training environmentoResponse generalization:oDefined as the extent to which the learner performs a variety of functional responses in addition to the trained responsesoMaintenance is defined as the extent to which the learner continues to perform the target beh after a portion of all of the intervention has been terminatedoGeneralization across subjects refers to changes in the behavior of untreated subjects as a function of treatment contingencies that are applied to other subjectsoPlanning for generality should identify: all of the desired behavior changes to be acquired by the subject, all of the environments where the behavior changes should be emitted, the behaviors required by other persons so that the newly acquired behaviors will be maintained by subject. Select target behavior that will produce rft. in post intervention environment. Specify all variations of the behavior and the settings where it should occur.\OStrategies to increase generalization:oTeach behaviors that will contact natural reinforcersoTeach to emit target beh at a high rate with shorter latencyoTeach multiple exemplars: instruction that provides practice with a variety of response topographies helps to ensure the acquisition of desired response and promotes untrained responsesoProgram common stimuli: include typical features of the generalized setting into instructional settingoLoose training is strategy for facilitating generality that involves systematically varying as many noncritical stimuli as possible during instruction in order to reduce the likelihood that a single stimulus will control respondingoIntermittent reinf helpsoSelf-management can helpTeach sufficient exemplars: consists of teaching student to respond to a subset of all the possible stimulus and response example and then assessing the students’ performance on untrained examples. Can program by item, stimulus context, setting, or personGeneral case analysis: systematic method for selecting teaching examples that represent full range of stimulus variations and response reqNegative or “don’t do it” teaching examples: help learners discriminate when NOT to exhibit bx. Should select and sequence according to the degree to which they differ from + examples. Set bx traps: baited with virtually irresistible rx that lure student into the trap. Only a low-effort response already in student’s repertoire is necessary to enter the trap. Interrelated contingencies of rx inside the trap motivate student, can remain eff for a long time bc students show few if any satiation effects-ask people in generalized setting to reinforce behavior-teach learner to recruit behavioroConcept: is SD between stimulus classes, stimulus class whose members should all occasion the same responseoNatural contingencies are arrangements between antecedent, behavior, consequent events that occur in the natural env in which the behavior of interest is to be maintainedoIndiscriminable contingencies: varying schedules and immediacy of reinforcementoMultiple exemplars: apply procedure using one example, probe, apply using another example, probe, etcoGeneral case analysis: conduct an analysis of the range of stimuli to be learned and teach to those stimulus conditions (p570-579)oTrain loosely: varying non-critical properties of the antecedent stimulioSequential modification: implementation of a procedure sequentially across settingsoProgram common stimuli: bring stimuli from natural setting into the training setting Response maintenance: extent to which a learner continues to perform target bx after a portion or all of the intervention responsible for bx initial occurrence has been terminatedGeneralized bx change-exists on a continuum = emit newly acquired bx and fxnally related bx in all desirable instances or only uses skill in trained setting and some nontrained settingChange is not always desirable:-Overgeneralize: bx is under control of stimulus class that is too broad-faulty stimulus control: bx comes under restricted control of an irrelevant ante stimulusOther types of generalized outcomes-stimulus equivalence-contingency adduction: behavior that is initially shaped under one set of conditions is recruited by a different set of contingencies and takes on a new function.-generalized across subjectsMediate Generalization-arrange for some thing or person to act as a medium that ensures transfer of target bx from ins to genContrive mediating stimulus: bring bx under control of a stimulus in the ins setting that will fxn in the generaliz setting to reliably prompt or aid learner’s performance. Should be fxnal for the target bx and transported easilyTeach self antr skills: learner is taught a bx that can serve as a prompt or rx target bx in all relevant settingsTrain to generalize-reinf response variability -instruct learner to generalizeModifying and terminating interventions-should consider complexity of intervention, ease or speed with which behavior changed, availability of naturally existing contingencies of rx-should withdraw each component – antecedents/prompts, task requirements, consequences Guiding Principles for Promoting Generalization-minimize need for general-probe for general before during and after insBefore: may reveal that the learner already performs some or all of the needed bx in general settingDuring: reveals if and when general occurs and if and when inst can be terminatedAfter: reveals extent of response maint-involve sign others-use least intrusive, least costly tactics possible-contrive intervention tactics as needed to achieve important outcomesJ-12 Program for maintenanceMaintenance refers to the extent to which changes in behavior engendered by a contingency persist over time given that the contingency remains unchanged. It is also used to refer to a collection of procedures designed to maintain behavior at the current level after an acquisition phase.Gradually approximate the antecedent stimulus conditions of the target environment by fading in natural distractors within the training environment.Select antecedent stimuli for the training environment that can be altered to gradually approximate the stimuli in the target environment Gradually change the nature of consequent stimulus conditions from contrived to natural reinforcers and punishing stimuli.Gradually approximate the schedule of consequent stimuli in the target environment within the training environment.Gradually approximate the consequent stimulus conditions of the target environment by delaying reinforcement within the training environment or by varying the types of reinforcement within the training environment.Arrange contingencies within the target environment to promote generality (e.g., train the repertoires of others).Include maintenance plan in behavior plans as a best practice standardPlan for ongoing maintenance of acquired skills and behavior reductions achievedConduct follow up data collection 3 and 6 months following achieving program criterion when possible Identify the natural contingencies and the associated performance requirements of the behavior selected for change. Natural contingencies are functional arrangements between behavior, antecedent, and consequent events that occur in the environments in which the behavior of interest is to be maintained (the target environment).J-13 Select behavioral cusps as goals for intervention when appropriate Identify potential behavioral cusps to include in a behavior plan or as an academic objectiveTrack data for relevant behaviors included in the planTrack data on potential emerging skills or behaviors occurring as a result of programming for behavioral cuspsJ-14 Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e. derived relations).Use stimulus equivalence methodsTeach identity matching as needed Teach matching across different dimensions to a common stimulus dimension, such as pictures to verbal prompt, and objects to verbal promptAssess for symmetry, reflexivity and transitivityJ-15 Base decision-making on data displayed in various formats Interpret and base decision making on data displayed in various formatsLevel: the value on the vertical axis around which a series of data points converge. When the data in a given condition fall at or near a specific level, the behavior is considered stable with respect to level; to the extent that the behavioral measures vary considerably from one another, the data are described as showing variability with respect to level. In cases of extreme variability, no particular level of performance is evidenced. Average level: mean of the values of DVMean or median level lines are sometimes added to graphic displays to represent the overall average or typical performance during a condition. Mean and median level lines must be used and interpreted with care because they can easily obscure important variability and trends in the data. Mean = a horiz line drawn through a series of data points within a condition at that point on the vertical axis = the average level of the series of measures, should be used and interpreted with caution. Median = represents the most typical per within a condition it is not so influenced by one or 2 outliers Trend refers to the overall direction taken by a data path; trends are described in terms of their direction, or degree, and the extent of variability of data points around the trend. Can be represented by a straight line drawn through data called a trend line or line of progressSplit middle line of progress: keep parallel to the quarter intersect line of progress and shift up or down so that an equal number of points are on top and under. Steps in determiningoDivide the data to be summarized into two equal parts. OFind the intersections of the mid-rate and mid-date for each half. ODraw a line through the data which passes through both of the intersections found in step two (quarter line of progress)oCount the number of data points which fall above and below the line. Shift the line so that there are the same number of pointsQuarter intersect line of progress: divide data series in half determine the mid dates. The mid-rate is the median of the points for that half of the data series. The quarter int line connects the 2 mid date and mid-rate intersectionsMid rates: middle values for each half of the data seriesMid dates: determined for each half of the data series. They are the middle points of the 1st and 2nd halves-Visual analysis: extent and type of variability in the data, level of data, trends in the data-# of data points: should determine quantity of data = the more measurements/unit of time and the longer the period of time in which measurement occurred = increased confidenceComparing Conditions-mean or median level lines can be helpful in examining the overall level btw conditions = 2 problems: guard against letting large differences among measures of central tendency to visually overwhelm the presence of equally large amounts of uncontrolled variability and measures of central tendency can obscure important trends in the data that warrant interpretation other than those suggested by central tendency indicators.-should report changes in level that occur with new condition because it can indicate that the IV must be in place for some time before behavior changes or that temporary level change was result of an uncontrolled variable.K. Implementation, Management & SupervisionK-01 Provide for ongoing documentation of behavioral servicesRelates to ethical standards for complete documentation of services providedprofessionally prepared K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the behavior of those responsible for carrying out behavior change procedures and design interventions accordinglyInvolvementActive supporter: naturally present in the generalization setting who helps promote the general and maint of the target bx by doing specific thingsTolerator: agrees not to behave in ways that would impede the generalization planK-03 Design and use competency based training for persons who are responsible for carrying out behavioral assessment and behavior change proceduresAssess for need for training.Clearly define training objectives - establish competencies that implement individual and family support plans orstrategic plans of agencies/businesses. Use as the ultimate measure of staff performance the level of clientprogress as indicated by data on targets for change and intermediate and ultimate outcomes.Clearly define training procedures.Establish methods for measuring results of training on the performance of each participant.Use the most effective training technology available.Use standard classroom, simulations and in situ training methods.Arrange for trainee feedback for use in adjusting training.Train trainees to train others.Use competency based proficiency checklists, data, reliability checks, etc.Describe a system for advanced development of skills in behavior analysis (national or regional conferences,workshops or seminars, professional association membership and participation, library collections,Recommended readings and journal reviews in literature of applied behavior analysis and developmental disabilities, discussion groups, formal course work, etc.).When describing a skill to the staff that you are going to teach them, a rationale will enhance acceptance of the skill and a precise description will prepare the individual for what they are about to learn. A description is likely to be helpful for individuals with limited reading skillsoAdvantages of modeling and role –playingoMany individuals learn better by seeing the behavior rather than hearing about itoAddress trainee uncertainty more so than didactic where trainees may not want to ask questions-select observers carefully-should meet specified criterion for recording before conducting observations-should practice recording and receive feedback1. Read definition of behavior2. Become familiar with data collection3. Practice recording with vigettes4. Practice recording with more complex vingettes5. Practice recording videos6. Practice in natural environment-prevent observer drift with retraining and booster sessions K-04 Design and use effective performance monitoring and reinforcement systemsDetermine contingencies of reinforcement likely to strengthen and maintain performance.Monitor performance across all relevant contexts.Use competency-based proficiency checklists, data reliability checks, program schedule compliance trackingsystems, etc. Use the same measurement system used to initially train and evaluate performance.Use the most effective technology available.Staff should be given an opportunity to respond to feedback.Describe a system to compare individual staff performance with prior measures (graphs, etc.).Systematic performance evaluation Time-samplingQuality should almost always be a system of measure…quantity is usually insufficientQuantity, quality, cost, and timeliness are the usual measures especially in businessK-05 Design and use systems for monitoring procedural integrity-provide precise operational definition-simplify standardize and automate-training and practice-assess treatment integrityK-06 Provide supervision for behavior-change agentsEnsure standards for supervision are put in placeFollow standards and requirements for supervision of behavior analysis servicesAdhere to BACB supervision standardsK-08 Establish support for behavior analysis services from persons directly and indirectly involved with these servicesMeet with relevant stakeholders to provide information on behavior analysis methods and approaches, and benefitsConduct trainings or presentations on ABA to gain support for servicesInclude parents, administrators, school personnel, teachers, professionals from other disciplines, political representatives, etc. Public presentations, media presentations and interviews, as appropriate, to explain and describe ABA methods, benefits, approaches For persons directly involved with these services:Use methods from previous content areas to design and implement contingencies that strengthen and maintain modes of interaction between and among participants in a particular social context that, in turn, support theprovision of behavior analysis services.Identify critical participants and impart to them fundamental information about applied behavior analysis that allows these persons to make informed choices regarding these services and to evaluate the results obtained through the application of behavior analysis.Use methods for ensuring that the results of behavior analysis services are properly conveyed to all participants and that the satisfaction of the participants with these results and the methods used is known.Discriminate sensitive issues that require special attention within the local community.Identify and interact with appropriate persons to receive communications regarding sensitive Issues (administrator, supervisor, funding, regulatory and monitoring agencies, etc.).For persons indirectly involved with these services:Use methods described in pervious content areas to assess the need for, identify probable contingencies, establish those contingencies and evaluate results relative to behavior that supports behavior analysis services and applied behavior analysis in general.Identify critical participants and impart to them fundamental information about applied behavior analysis that allows these persons to make informed choices regarding these services and to evaluate the results obtained through the application of behavior analysis.Discriminate typical program outcome measures that warrant reporting to administrators, supervisors, funding agencies, etc.Aggregate and display data on sensitive issues and program outcome measures for ease of interpretation by persons not trained in traditional behavior analysis data displays.Discriminate sensitive issues that require special attention within the local community (dangerous behavior, public display of sexual behavior, etc.) Identify appropriate levels of personnel to receive communications regarding sensitive issues. K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the clients’ behavioral repertoires in their natural environmentsLearn what the person and his/her support network of family, friends and/or other key players can contribute to the maintenance of this person’s behavioral repertoire.Learn what other professionals and paraprofessionals can contribute in expertise, services and/or supports.Work collaboratively with other professionals, paraprofessionals, the person and members of his or her support network to establish and maintain the services and supports needed by this person.Additional Information Provide behavior analysis services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide services to one’s clients.-is problem amenable to bx treatment?-medical cause, problem with client or someone else; have other interventions been tried; does the problem actually exist; can the problem be solved simply/informally; would it be better addressed by another discipline; is it an emergency-is proposed intervention likely to be successful?-client willing, caregivers willing, been successfully treated in literature, public support, behavior analylst has appropriate experience, adequate control of environmentalMiscellaneous Info:Steady or stable state responding: a pattern of responding that exhibits relatively little variation in its measured dimensional qualities over a period of a timeBaseline logic: entails 3 elements: prediction, verification, and replication. Each of which depends on overall experimental approach called steady state strategySteady State Strategy: repeatedly exposing a subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate or control any extraneous influences on the bx and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing next conditionBaseline: collect bc: objective basis for detecting the effects of the IV, provides opportunity to look for and note env events related to bx, can provide guidance in setting initial criteria and can help determine if bx needs interventionPrediction: anticipated outcome of a presently unkown future measurement-move to next phase – many measurements better than few and longer period of time better, if not sure – continue, Bas knowledge of bxVerification: demonstrating that the prior level of BL responding would have remained unchanged had the IV not been introducedReplication: repeating IV manipulations conducted previously in the study and obtaining similar outcomesK-10 Arrange for the orderly termination of services when they are no longer needed.Section III: Foundational KnowledgeExplanatory Fiction: circular reasoning whereby the cause and effect are both inferred from the same info includes: attitude, feeling, ability, talent, expectation, knowledgeoKnowing a fact is when you exhibit a particular response given a particular stimulusoInteroceptive: stimulation from organs related to internal economyoProprioceptive: carries stimulation from joints, tendons, muscles, etc necessary for posture and movementoExteroceptive: related to hearing, seeing, feeling on the skin, smelling, tastingoInternal Validity? OInstrumentation: data collectionoMultiple intervention: interactive effectsoMaturation: changes that occur within testingoInstability: cyclesProcedural driftoAttritionoSetting confoundsoProcedural integrity oIntervening when behavior changes Philosophical Assumptions of ABA: FΚ?01 Lawfulness of behavior: What a person does is a result of specifiable conditions and once these conditions are discovered, we can anticipate and to some extent determine his/her actions. Predicated on assumptions that universe is a lawful and orderly place in which all events occurs as the result of other events – not accidental or predetermined. 1st assume lawfulness of bx then look for lawful relationsFK-02 Selectionism – phylogenic (genetics), ontogenic (individual attributes, behaviors), cultural (learned).Darwinian: environment selects features of a species that evolves over long periods of timeBehaviorism: environment selects for behaviors of individual members of a species based on prior and current contingencies experienced in the person’s lifetimeFK-03 Determinism: universe is lawful and orderly (see FK-01 above)FK-04 Empiricism: objective observation based on thorough description and precise quantification of the phenomena of interest. Every effort to understand, predict, and improve or change behavior hinges on the Behavior Analyst’s ability to completely define, systematically observe, and accurately record the occurrence and nonoccurrence of the behaviorFK-05 Parsimony – stinginess, all simple, logical explanations for the phenomena under investigation be ruled out experimentally before more complex or abstract explanations are considered (similar to “Occham’s Razor” – simplest explanation is best)FK-06 Pragmatism – logical; an approach that assesses the truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application. FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic- i.e. cognitivist or hypothetical constructs) explanations of Behavior. Behavior is determined by events or stimuli that occur outside the organism.FK-08 Distinguish between radical and methodological behaviorism. Radical Behaviorism: Developed and promoted by B.F. Skinner, this is a philosophy of the science of behavior attributing the causes of behavior to environmental events and includes effects on internal processes Methodological Behaviorism: Associated with Watson. This view states that private events may exist but due to difficulty directly measuring these, they are not appropriate subject matter of investigation in behavior analysis.FK-09 Distinguish between the conceptual analysis of behavior, experimental analysis of behavior, applied behavior analysis, and behavioral service delivery.BEHAVIORISM: The philosophy of behavior analysis, based on a scientific approach to the examination of behavior, extended to verbal behavior and private events, advancing that all behavior is a function of the interactions of ontogenic and phylogenic variables rather than controlled by nominal, hypothetical entities such as "mind," "will," and "self." Behavioral processes (e.g., reinforcement, stimulus control) are functionally defined, including observable operations and their effects.EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR: A method, for which behaviorism provides the theoretical underpinnings, for studying behavior and the environmental variables of which it is a function. The characteristics of this method include continuous observation of the behavior of individuals, precise description of both behavior and the independent variables in question, automated recording whenever possible, and studying behavior in controlled environments.APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: Like the experimental analysis of behavior, the assumptions of behaviorism provide the theoretical underpinnings for applied behavior analysis. Unlike the experimental analysis of behavior, applied behavior analysis involves studying behavior with significance to the participants involved.Moreover, the investigation does not always involve continuous observation, behaviors that can be quickly repeated, or well controlled environments. Automated recording is sometimes possible, but is used much less frequently than in the experimental analysis of behavior.ABA is a science in which procedures derived from the principles of behavior are systematically applied to improve socially significant behavior to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate experimentally that the procedures employed were responsible for the improvement in the behavior. It is usually attributed to have formally begun by Ayllon & Michael (1959) “The Psychiatric Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer.” Also, technologies have been developed over the past 30 years that have greatly improved instructional and teaching methods such as precision teaching, PECS, and others. Also, these advances have improved intervention methods for addressing problem behavior. The latter involves provision of behavior analysis as a form of intervention and direct service delivery. Other terms and concepts:? Experimental Analysis: employs the methods of natural science to discover general principles of behavioroFocus is on discovering principles under very controlled conditionsoFactors under investigation are controlled while effects on DV are measured? Replication: primary method with which scientists determine the reliability and usefulness of their findings and discover their mistakes?Philosophic Doubt: continually question the truthfulness of what is regarded as factScience – systematic approach for seeking and organizing knowledge about the natural worldPurpose – to achieve thorough understanding of phenomena, must be separated from personal, political, etcThree levels of understanding:1. Description: systematic observation enables scientists to describe accurately. Consists of collection of fact about the observed events that can be quantified, classified, and examined for possible relations. Knowledge obtained often suggests hypotheses for future research2. Prediction: when repeated observations reveal that 2 events consistently covary with each other. Can suggest the possibility of causal relations which can then be explored in later studies. 3. control: highest and most valuable level. Fxnal relation provides most useful scientific understanding. Results when a specific change in 1 event can reliably be produced by specific manipulation of another event. DeterminismThe belief that the universe is a lawful and orderly place and that all phenomena occur as the result of other events. Things do not occur willy-nilly, they are caused by other factors, which are themselves physical phenomena amenable to scientific investigation. It is the assumption of determinism that guides the methodological practices of the researcher. Mentalistic vs. environmental explanations of behavior- Mentalistic explanations of behavior place the cause of a behavior within the person/mind focuses on consciousness and states of mind-environmental explanations of behavior claim that behavior occurs because of antecedents and consequences in the environmentMentalism- assumes existence an inner dimension that directly cause or at least mediate some forms of bx. Based on hypothetical constructs. Results in explanatory fictions = fictitious variable that often is simply another name for the observed behavior that contributes nothing to the understanding = circular reasoning.Structuralism- restrict activities to descriptions of bx do not experiment, reject all events not operationally defined by objective assessmentMethodological- same as above except use scientific manipulation ignores inner events, which restricts ability to understand bxRadical behaviorism – skinner’s views. Does not discard private events, subjects to same analysis. 3 assumptions regarding private events: private events are bx, is only diff bc of inaccessibility, and private bx is influenced by same kinds of variables.Experimental Analysis of behavior, ABA, and Behavioral Technologies?Experimental analysis of behavior: employs the methods of natural science to discover general principles of behavior. Includes experiments in lab setting with goal of discovering and clarifying fundamental principles of ABA.?ABA – the science in which procedures derived from the principles of behavior are systematically applied to improve socially significant behavior to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate experimentally that the procedures employed were responsible for the improvement in behavior.?Behavioral Technologies-?? The procedures that are derived from the principles of behavior?Basic science: focuses on discovering principles under very controlled conditionsBehaviorism: philosophical domain. BA who pursues theoretical and conceptual issues.BehaviorPrivate Events: such as thinking or sensing the stimuli are no different from public events such as oral reading. Private events are those events wherein individuals respond with respect to certain stimuli accessible to themselves alone…the response that are made to those stimuli may themselves be public or private. It need not be supposed that events taking place within the skin have any special properties for that reason alone…one’s responses with respect to private stimuli are equally lawful and alike in kind to one’s responses with respect to public stimuli. Behavior: that portion of an organism’s interaction with the environment characterized by detectable displacements in space through time of some part of the organism. Must produce a measurable change in some aspect of the environment. Refers to a set or class of movements holding in common certain dimensions or functionsBehavioral account: avoid words such as: want, desires, anger, doesn’t want. Point out antecedent, event, consequence. Operationally define terms, unless exp control is established use them in a manner that implies only a correlation Dimensions of ABA?Applied: refers to social significance of the behavior under investigation. A study must examine behavior that has immediate importance to the subjects of the study.?Behavioral: must be the behavior in need of improvement, must be able to measure the behavior, must ask whose behavior has changed?Analytic: demonstrate a functional relation between the manipulated events and the behavior of interest?Technological: all of the procedures in the study must be completely identified and precisely described?Conceptually systematic: describe the procedures for behavior change in terms of the relevant principles from which they are derived. Might enable the consumer to derive other similar procedures from the same principles. Needed if technology is to become an integrated discipline instead of a collection of loose tricks.?Effective: must improve the behavior under investigation to a practical degree. Must reach clinical or social antrumming. Should make changes that result in noticeable changes in the reasons the bx was selected in the first place.?Generality: behavior change must last over time, appear in environments other than the one in which the behavioral techniques were applied, or spread to other behaviors not directly treated by the behavior change techniques. Additional terms and concepts:OVerbal behavior is defined as behavior that is “reinforced through mediation of other persons.” Relation between behavior and controlling variablesoGeneralization gradient and stimulus change decrement are similar concepts. Occur when a decrease in responding is due to a change in the SDoGeneralization gradient: diminishing rate of responding as the SD increasingly variesoStimulus change: the mathematical different in the rate of responding from the original SD to a variant of that SDoExplanatory Fiction: circular reasoning whereby the cause and effect are both inferred from the same info includes: attitude, feeling, ability, talent, expectation, knowledgeoKnowing a fact is when you exhibit a particular response given a particular stimulusoInteroceptive: stimulation from organs related to internal economyoProprioceptive: carries stimulation from joints, tendons, muscles, etc necessary for posture and movementoExteroceptive: related to hearing, seeing, feeling on the skin, smelling, tastingoInternal Validity? OInstrumentation: data collectionoMultiple intervention: interactive effectsoMaturation: changes that occur within testingoInstability: cyclesProcedural driftoAttritionoSetting confoundsoProcedural integrity oIntervening when behavior changesDefine and Provide Examples of: FK-10 ?Behavior: that portion of the organism’s interaction with the environment characterized by detectable displacements in space through time of some part of the organism. Must produce measurable change in environment, refers to a set or class of movements holding in common certain dimensions or functions. Movement of muscles and glands, must be living. Needs to be 2 separate entities: organism and/or environment and existence of relation btw them. Used to refer to larger set or class of responses that share certain physical dimensions. Example: crying?Response: used to refer to a specific instance of a particular behavior. The measurable unit of analysis in the science of behavior. Example: touching a cardResponse topography = physical shape or form of bx?Response class: consists of a group of behaviors that comprise an operant; that is members of a response class are strengthened or weakened collectively by the process of operant conditioning. Example: motor imitationRepertoire- behavior a person can do or set of a skills a person has learned that are relevant to particular settings or tasks FK-11 Define and provide examples of: Environment: “Conglomerate of real circumstances in which the organism or referenced part of the organism exists.” Generally, any or all aspects of the surrounding world.?Stimulus: specific aspects of the environment that can differentiated from one another. Those environmental variables the experimenter is controlling or manipulating in some fashion so as to determine their influence on the behavior under investigation. Any condition, event, or change in the physical world. Energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cell. Detect outside and inside the body. Mostly study changes outside of the body. Can be described formally (physical features), temporally (when they occur with respect to a bx of interest), finally (by their effects on bx). Example: light, sounds, odor?Stimulus class: set of stimuli with a common relationship. Example: the concept of rednessFormal- often describe, measure, and manipulate stimuli according to formal dimensions: size, color, intensity, etc can be social or nonsocialTemporal – most affected prior and immediately after bxFunctions – understood best using final analysis of their effects on bx. Can be immediate but temporary effect of increase/decrease the current frequency or delayed but relatively permanent effect in terms of the frequency of that type of bx in the futureFK-12 Stimulus Equivalence – relational responding (Sidman) This is a paradigm based on the work originated by Sidman. This approach is predicated on knowing about discrete trial approaches and match-to-sample teaching methods, as well as errorless learning. So, our discussion of this topic will include learning other key teaching strategies in Applied Behavior Analysis. Stimulus Equivalence is considered a uniquely human ability for which non-human animals do not have the capacity. However, some animal studies have demonstrated it at basic levels. Emergence of accurate responding to untrained and no reinforced stimulus-stimulus relations, following the rx of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations-defined by testing for reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivityReflexivity: A=A identify identical stimulus. In the absences of training and reinf of a response, will select stimulus that is matched to itself Symmetry: A=B, B=A reversibility of sample stimulus and comparisonTransitivity: A=B, A=C, therefore B=C stimulus-stimulus relation that emerges as a product of training 2 other stimulus-stimulus relationStimulus equivalence implies that 2 antecedent stimuli occasion the same response, therefore one stimulus could be substituted for other stimulusTest for transitivity and symmetry across stimulus dimensions FK-13 reflexive relations (US-UR) Antecedent stimuli that naturally elicit a reflex. For example, a puff of air to the eye will elicit an eye blink reflex. A tap on the knee will elicit the “knee-jerk” reflex. Presenting food to hungry dogs will elicit salivationBasic physiological responses in the viscera. Usually genetically pre-determined.FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR) Respondent conditioning paradigmRespondent behavior is elicited by antecedent stimuli. Is response component of the stimulus-response reflex. An unconditioned stimulus and the respondent behavior it elicits are called an unconditioned reflex. These are genetically predetermined responses to specific stimuliRepeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus, results in the development of a conditioned stimulus, which can by itself elicit the conditioned response. A conditioned stimulus and its elicited conditioned respondent are called a conditioned reflexRespondent extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus and thus loses its ability to elicit the conditioned response. Unpairing the US and CS causes the eliciting properties of the CS to be diminished or eliminated. Respondent conditioning involves establishing new stimulus-stimulus relationships. No new behavior is learned as with operant learning. Calls forUCS that reliably elicits UCRPairing of UCR with NSNS must be absent when UCS is absentCan beoElicited but not shapedoElicited by antecedentoCan sometimes be brought under operant controlAKA: stimulus-stimulus contingencyDue to probability of a particular stimulus given another stimulusOne stimulus follows another (CS if followed by US)Dependent relation between 2 or more stimuliHabituation- gradually diminishing response strength when stimulus is presented repeatedly FK-15 Operant conditioning (learning) paradigmOperant behavior is behavior for which the probability of occurrence is determined by it history of consequencesA consequence is an environmental change that follows a given behavior in a relatively immediate temporal sequence and alters the probability of future occurrence of the behavior. Consequences take one of two forms: 1) a new stimulus is presented or added to the environment 2) an already present stimulus is terminated or removed from the environmentConsequences can only affect the future probability of behavior. Consequences select response classes, not individual responses. Immediate consequences have the greatest effect.Consequences select any behavior- only important aspect of contingency is temporal, and operant conditioning occurs automatically-does not require person’s awarenessResponses emitted because of the effects of reinforcement will usually differ slightly from earlier reinforced responses but will share common elements with the former responseA response class consists of a group of behaviors that comprise an operant; that is, members of a response class are strengthened or weakened collectively by the process of operant conditioningOperant contingency refers to the stimulus conditions under which a behavior will result in a consequence?Positive Reinforcement: occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus and as a result occurs more often in the future. Example: getting money for cleaning your room and cleaning your room increases?Negative Reinforcement: Certain stimuli increase the future probability of behavior when they are terminated immediately following a response. Example: crying results in removal of demand, crying increasesFK-16 respondent-operant interactions: how the two learning processes – respondent and operant- interact and affect behaviorFK-17&19?Unconditioned reinforcement/punishment: stimuli that are able to influence the future rate of behaviors they closely follow even without previous contact. Example: food, noxious odorsUnconditioned reinforcers and punishers naturally affect behavior without prior learning history of the individual. Also referred to as stimuli that are “genetically” predetermined in their affect on behavior.Note:Reinforcement increases likelihood of future behavior.Punishment decreases likelihood of future behavior. FK-18 & 20?Conditioned Reinforcement/punishment: Not related to any biological need or structure; they are developed as a result of each person’s unique experience with his/her environment. Example: money, toys, computer games; response cost. ?Positive Punishment: (type 1) the addition of a stimulus immediately following a behavior, reduces the likelihood of the future occurrence of that behavior. Example: noxious odor?Negative Punishment: (type 2) the removal of a stimulus immediately following a behavior, reduces the likelihood of the future occurrence of that behavior. Example: losing our allowanceFK-21 schedules of reinforcement and punishmentType of reinforcement schedules:Interval Schedules: Arranged such that the first response that is emitted after the interval ends gets reinforced. This is the case for both variable and fixed interval (VI and FI) schedules. Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement is delivered following a specific (FR) or average number (VR) of responses are emitted Reinforcement Schedules Summary Table:Time Interval Response RatioConstant – Fixed FI FRRandomized/Variable VI VRPositive PunishmentA decrease in behavior because something is added to the environment following behaviorIt describes the processSpanking or any other physical event following the behaviorRequired work or exercise –such as when a basketball coach requires the team to take 5 laps when a player misses a foul shot Over-correction – such as requiring a child to clean the entire room after throwing his own papers on the floorNegative Punishment:Removing a stimulus following behavior which results in reduction of the behavior in the future.Types include Response Cost – could be loss of tokens, getting a speeding ticket or other fine such as for litteringTime-out (technically “time out from positive reinforcement”). For the procedure to be time-out, the person must be removed from a reinforcing situation. Hence, escape maintained behavior that results in removal from the situation is not a time-out, but is a reinforcing consequence by definition Temporary Loss or Removal of a reinforcing item or activity. For example, a child loses time to play computer games that evening after getting into a fight with a peer on the school bus FK-22 ?Extinction: the withdrawal of reinforcement for a previous reinforced behavior. Example: when you no longer provide attention when someone hits their headRespondent Extinction- the weakening of a conditioned reflex when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.Procedural- ignore problem behavior and it will go away = ineffectiveFunctional- withhold maintaining reinforcer necessary for “extinction” both in terms of definition and procedurally.4 Misuses:Refer to any decrease in behavior as extinctionMix up with forgetting. Forgetting = passage of time causes decreaseIs not response blocking because the behavior can occur with extinction, but no reinforcement with blocking ? behavior cannot occurExtinction is not the same as NCRFK-23 automatic reinforcement and punishmentSkinner referred to direct feedback from one’s own behavior that acts as a reinforcer or punisher without external consequences, as “automatic” reinforcement and punishment based on the resulting effect on behavior.FK-24 Stimulus Control: behavior that is emitted more often in the presence of a Sd rather than in its absence is under stimulus control. Example: stopping at a red lightThe Sd acquires its ability to control a particular response bc it has been associated with certain consequences in the past (telephone ringing)S-delta = the absence of reinforcement give a response in the presence of a given stimulusSD = presence of stimulus and presence of response results in reinforcement in presence of that stimulusOccurs when the rate, latency, duration, or amplitude of a response is altered in the presence of antecedent stimulistimuli acquire control only when responses emitted in the presence of that stimulus produce reinforcement more often than responses in the absence of the stimulus Sd acquires its controlling function through association with stimulus changes that occur immediately following responseA conditioned stimulus acquires its controlling funciton through associations with other antecedent stimuli that elicit the responseHard to distinguish if Sd or MO – Sd changes availability of Rft. MO changes what functions as reinforcement. An antecedent stimulus functions as an Sd only when in its presence a specific response or set of responses produces reinforcemt, and the same response does not produce rft. in the absence of that stimulus.Stimulus Discrimination training – requires one bx and 2 antecedent stimulus conditions. Responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus cond and not in the other. S delta denotes extinction and lesser RxConcept Formation – complex example of stimulus control that requires both stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli and discrimination between classes of stimuliFeature Stimulus Class- share common physical forms (topographical structures) or common relative relations (spatial) ex DogArbitrary Stimulus Class – evoke same response but do not share common feature. Ex 50% or ?Factors that affect Stimulus ControlPreattending skills- looking at materials, teacher, listening, and sitting quietlyStimulus salience- prominence of stimulus in the person’s environmentMasking and overshadowing- increase and decrease salience. Masking = even though a stimulus has control, another competing stimulus may block evocative effect. Overshadowing = presence of 1 stimulus condition interferes with acquisition of another stimulus. Can rearrange physical environment, making stimuli more intense, reinforce behavior in the presence of relevant stimuli. ?Motivating Operations: any change in the environment which alters the effectiveness of some object or event as reinforcement and simultaneously alters the momentary frequency of the behavior that has been followed by that reinforcement. Example: hunger?To demonstrate an alteration in reinforcer effectiveness (functional-altering effect) there has to be a change in the frequency of behavior in presence vs absence of the MO, when a reinforcer is made contingent upon that behavior. This will enable evaluation of reinforcer effectiveness given the MO. You will almost always have an evocative and function-altering effect together?The function altering effect is evidenced by an increase or decrease in future responding under similar conditionseffect on a behavior when a stimulus change is made contingent upon it?Evocative effect – momentary influence on frequency of behaviorFK-25 multiple functions of a single stimulusA single antecedent may serve as an Sd for different responses as with response generalizationAlso, a single consequence may reinforce multiple or different behaviors. Also an aspect of response generalization. The same reinforcer may serve as an MO for different behaviors (multiple functions of the same reinforcer)FK-26 unconditioned motivating operationsPrimary or Unconditioned Motivating Operations (UMO’s) are similar to primary reinforcers and their effects. UMOs require no prior learning, and are part of our genetics (such as food, water, warmth, comfort, sexual contact). Their function is based upon deprivation and satiation for a particular primary reinforcerFK-27 conditioned motivating operationsConditioned Motivating Operations (CMO’s) are similar to conditioned reinforcers and their effectsCMOs require conditioning for their function to occur and affect behaviorSummary Table for CMOs and UMOsType of Learning Temporarily Increases Value of the Reinforcer Temporarily Decreases the Value of the Reinforcer Primary or Unlearned UMO = Unconditioned Motivating Operation:Increased value of a primary reinforcerBehavior altering effect: increase in behavior maintained by the stimulus UMO = Unconditioned Motivating Operation:Decreased value of a primary reinforcer- Behavior altering effect: Reduces or cessation of behavior maintained by the stimulus Learned CMO = Conditioned Motivating Operation: Motivating OperationIncreased value of a learned reinforcerBehavior altering effect: increase in behavior maintained by the stimulus as a reinfoircer CMO = Conditioned Motivating Operation:Decreased value of a learned reinforcer- Behavior altering effect: Reduces or cessation of behavior maintained by the stimulus as a reinforcerFK-28 transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating operations1) Transitive (CMO-T)Makes another stimulus effective as a reinforcer by prior pairing with an unconditioned reinforcer. All variables that function as UMOs will function as CMO-Ts for the stimuli that are conditioned reinforcers due to prior pairing with that unconditioned reinforcer (I.e. it is a Conditioned MO and due to being a conditioned reinforcer ) (From Cooper et. al., 2007, p. 387.)The reinforcer may available in presence or absence of the stimulus. For example, an activity, action, or toy is available but if there is no evocative MO, behavior of accessing the item will not occur. 2) Reflexive (CMO-R)Acquires MO effectiveness by preceding some form of worsening or improvement Example: a warning stimulus in a typical escape-avoidance procedure; evokes behavior that produces the offset 3) Surrogate (CMO-S) Has the same value-altering and behavior altering effects as the MO it was paired withCan be altered by pairing and unpairing of relevant stimuliFK-29 distinguish between the discriminative and the motivating operationsMOs are defined by their effect on the value of the reinforcer and the behavior evoked to obtain the reinforcer. MOs are operations resulting in temporary changes in the value (effectiveness) of consequences (establishing and abolishing)These effects are relatively short-term and transient Discriminative Stimuli (Sds) are antecedents indicating that reinforcement is available contingent upon a response in the presence of that stimulus. For example: FK-30 distinguish between motivating operations and reinforcement effects CMO: Provide a child with a bag of toys s/he likes to play with to select one toy to earn when a task is completed (such as matching colors). When the task is complete, the instructor gives the child the toy to play with. This makes it more likely that the instructor will serve as an Sd to do tasks requested in the future under these circumstancesUMO: A child has not had a snack all morning and is hungry – the child cries on seeing her mother. The mother gives the child a snack. This results in “satiating” the hunger, and reinforces crying to get food in the future when hungry (UMO) and she sees her mother (Sd that food is available in her presence).FK-31 Behavioral Contingencies: the complete description of a specific operant. Includes: 1) a precise definition of the limits and range of response topographies that will produce 2) a specified consequence and 3) the environmental situation in which that consequence influences future probability of response. - Three-term contingency- antecedent, behavior, consequence-Contingency- the dependency of a particular consequence on the occurrence of the behavior and temporalFK-32 contiguityTemporal relationship between response and reinforcerTemporal relationship between CS and USFK-33 Functional Relations: when experimentation reveals that an event can be made to happen by the manipulation of another event the two events are said to have a functional relation. A certain behavior is a function of certain variables. Example: tantrumming has a functional relation to escaping demands; or “tantrumming is maintained by escape” Skinner spoke of behavior as a function of its consequences. Conducting a functional analysis for example is a method for determining the functional relationship between the behavior and particular consequences (reinforcers). ?Demonstrated: experimentally validated relation between the IV and DV?Established/Caused: an experimental valid demonstrates that ONLY the IV can bring about change in the DVFK-34 conditioned discriminationsLearned discriminations that can be in a setting or environmental situation (contextual stimuli, such as whispering indoors vs. speaking loudly in the playground).Usually occurs as the result of differential reinforcement procedures in which one type or dimension of behavior is reinforced in one setting and a different type is reinforced in another setting.FK-35 Stimulus Discrimination – learned distinction among stimuli within or between dimensions or classes of stimuli.When one of two or more stimuli result in differential responding as a result of prior learning history such as when responding is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus and not in the presence of the other stimulus. For example, a child is given the verbal prompt to “point to the red block” when presented with a red and green block, then the correct response (pointing to the red block) is reinforced. Pointing to green is not reinforced when given the Sd to point to red. FK-36 Response GeneralizationResponse generalization: individual emits a variety of related responses other than the one being trained. Is considered to be a functional response class.FK-37 Stimulus Generalization Refers to enduring behavior change that occurs across settings, subjects, and time. Behavior occurs in environments other than the trained environment. The same response is emitted in the presence of stimuli along the same dimension. For e.g. a child says red when shown a card with a red, orange, blue, green or yellow square. Also when acquiring stimulus control, stimulus generalization refers to the general tendency to respond in the presence of new stimuli that have similar physical properties (i.e. within or along a stimulus dimension such as shape, color, size, etc.), or have been associated with the stimulus.?Discrimination: when a response is not emitted in the presence of new or untrained stimuli. Also considered the opposite of stimulus generalization. (If someone is discriminating among colors or shapes, then the likelihood of stimulus generalization along that dimension is very low).FK-38 behavioral contrast – response rate acceleration as a result of removal of a reinforcing stimulus that was previously available (could be a reinforcer or punisher).A teacher tells her class to remain quiet when she leaves the room after noticing the disruption. The next time she leaves the room the students get louder than the last time.You are driving to work in a 50 mph zone and a pickup truck gets in front of you going 30 mph. The truck turns off after about a mile. You then go 60 mph to make up for lost time (although this is seen as an “emotional” response to the delay).FK-39 behavioral momentum – Low probability behavior followed by high probability sequence.Discovered by Nevin, and later human studies by Mace, et. al. & Ahearn (resistance).Not an operant process. This is generally considered as the result of S-S relationships, and not maintained by reinforcing consequences.FK-40 matching law –behavior distributed among alternatives matches relative rates of reinforcement provided for those alternatives. R1 = rft.1 R1 + R2 rft. 1 + rft. 2 Where R = Response rate on a given alternativeAnd rft. = rate of reinforcement on that alternative.By entering the obtained data from a study with two alternatives, the calculations should yield equivalent or approximately equivalent results for both sides of the equation. (See E-08, above)FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior – behavior shaped and maintained by its consequences, as opposed to “rule-governed” behavior (see FK-42, below).FK-42 rule-governed behavior – behavior occurs as a result of an antecedent such as a prompt or Sd rather than by as a result of consequences in the situation. Likely the result of prior learning history and derived relational responding.?Contingency shaped behavior: behavior that is shaped by experience. Behavior that occurs due to history of reinforcementoDirect Acting contingencies: effective, immediate, oIndirect Acting contingencies: effective, delayedoDirect acting: delayed, may be effective or ineffective?Rule governed behavior: behavior that is shaped by adherence to rules. Do not have any experiences governing the behavior. Behavior under the control of verbal antecedents. No immediate consequence is apparent. Response consequence delay is greater than 30 seconds. ?Rule: EO that establishes rule-breaking as an aversive motivating condition?Controlled behavior: behavior is controlled by delayed outcomes that are probable and sizeable but not when they are small and cumulative or improbableDistinguish Between the Verbal OperantsFK-43 Echoics:verbal behavior whose form is controlled by someone else’s verbal behavior with point to point correspondence. When the speaker say “cookie” the listener says “cookie”-formal similarity = controlling ante stimulus and the response share the same sense mode and physically resemble each otherEchoic training- goal to teach child to repeat the words and phrases emitted by parents and teachers when asked to then repeat novel words. Ultimate goal is to transfer to other verbal operants-present stimulus and differentially reinf-more powerful in combo with mand training-can reinf all vocal bx for low frequency-auto reinf say bubbles right before blowing bubblesImitation: behavior that immediately follows a model’s behavior and has it’s topography or form controlled by that model’s behavior. Necessary skill for learning.FK-44 Mands ?Mands: controlled by states of deprivation or aversion. Functions to request or obtain what is wanted. Example child says cookie when he wants to eat a cookie?are under the control of antecedent variables due to a history of reinforcement?those antecedent conditions occasion manding when the mand is likely to be reinforcement?Extended Mand: a mand that occurs when reinforcement of mand is impossibleoSuperstitious mand: reinforcing event has been incidental, a collateral event, not a consequence of the mandoMagical Mand: describing the reinforcement that would be appropriate given the current state of deprivation or aversive stimulation = wishful thinkingoMand in literature?Questions are mands for verbal action-very important for early development of language and day to day interaction-1st operant to develop-only verbal operant that directly benefits speaker-often become strong forms of vb because of specific reinforcementMand Training-response needs to be under functional control of MO-diff response forms need to be estb and brought under control-use prompt fading and diff reinf-present item and echoic prompt, fade prompt, and fade stimulus-easiest to teach are ones with strong MO-can help prevent acquisition of negative bx-pairs parents and trainer with mand items = conditioned reinf FK-45 Tacts: verbal behavior that is under control of the nonverbal environment, labeling. Child says “cookie” when he sees cookie but does not want the cookie-Tacting is not labeling, denoting, describing, indicating otherwise. Inserts an unnecessary element into the explanation more accurate to say that the behavior of calling a red truck “red” is a function of a property of the truck-speaker names, things, and actions that the speaker has direct contact with through sense modes-under functional control of nonverbal Sd Tact Extensions (Probably won’t need to know)Generic- novel stimulus shares all of the relevant or defining features of the original stimulus. Provoked by stimulus generalizationMetaphorical- novel stimulus shares some but not all of the relevant features ‘Juliet is like the sun”Metonymical- verbal responses to novel stimuli that share none of the relevant features of the original stimulus configuration, but some irrelevant but related feature has acquired stimulus control. “car” pic of garageSolistic- when a stimulus property that is only indirectly related to the tact relations evokes substandard VB such as Malapropisms “you red good”Tact Training-easiest to start with objects where there is an MO-do 1st 2 steps of mand training-fade MO by using pictures -fade echoic prompt to bring under control of nonverbal stimulus FK-46 Intraverbals: responses to the language of another person. Under the control of other verbal behavior and strengthened by social reinforcement closely resembles conversation. Example: speaker says “you wash your hands in the” listener says “sink”-occurs when a verbal Sd evokes a verbal response that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimulus -develops/facilitates acquisition of other VB and Non VBIntraverbal training-shouldn’t start until mand, tact, echoic, imitation, receptive, and matching to sample repertoires-goal is to break free from other sources of control-no new topographies are taught; known words are brought under a new type of stimulus control-start like mand training and fade MO by using pictures Measurement ConceptsFK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of behavior-3 PropertiesRepeatability: instances of a response class can occur repeatedly through time (count, rate/frequency, celeration)Temporal Extent: every instance of bx occurs during some amount of time (duration)& Temporal Locus: every instance of bx occurs at certain point in time with respect to other variables (latency, interresponse times)Combination of These – such as rate, percent occurrence, percent intervals, etc.Derivative measures = percentage and trials to criterionDefinitional measures = topography/magnitudeFK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages of using continuous and discontinuous measurement procedures and sampling techniques ?Continuous: Includes frequency, whole interval and partial interval (whole and partial are discontinuous or can be)Advantages: ?Desirable to have continuous record of behaviorDisadvantages?For frequency need to have a behavior the is short in duration and does not occur too rapidly?Whole interval produces a conservative measure of behavior because the behavior has to occur for the whole interval?Partial interval can produce an underestimate too if a behavior occurs several times per interval because you only score one occurrence useful for behaviors where you are not concerned with duration?Sampling techniques: includes momentary time samplingAdvantages: ?Useful when it is not feasible to gather information over a long period of time?Useful when taking data on a large group of peopleDisadvantages: ?Some data are lost by the “moment” requirement of time sampling?Quite accurate at short intervals but for longer intervals, expect increased error for low frequency low duration behaviorsWhole-interval – used with continuous bx or high rate bx-divide into brief intervals-bx needs to occur during entire interval-usually underestimates occurrence of bx-can determine duration by adding intervals where bx occurredPartial interval-record whether bx occurred any time during the interval-no duration info-can overestimate frequency and sometimes underestimate with high frequency-can measure multiple bx concurrentlyMomentary Time sampling-record whether or not bx is occurring at end of each time intervalADV: don’t have to attend continuously DISADV: much bx is missed, not recommended for low freq and short duration bx-important to compare the results of the sampling methods with those obtained by continuous measurements of durationEthics(There is no section on this in Task List 4.)You should initiate, modify, continue, or discontinue an intervention only when doing so results in a lower risk relative to alternative actionsoIt is important to be as truthful as possible when influencing a client about treatment options. Do not feel obligated to explain interventions that have no empirical supportoAn explanation of a procedure in terms the consumer will understand is essential information to be provided for consentoAs soon as is FEASIBLE inform the client of anticipated course of therapy, involvement of 3rd parties, your fees, and limits of confidentialityoWyatt: right to food, privacy, basic activities do not have to be earnedoIDEA: free appropriate educationoHancock: limits duration and place conditions on use of T/OoVan Houten: the goal of personal welfare is fostered by othe use of peer review and human rights committees when treatment involves risk to the individualofocus on providing functional skills that foster independenceoclient or advocate being actively involved in treatment decisionsoVan Houten: teaching functional skills refers to teaching skillso that foster access to positive reinforcementoreducing behavior that interfere with individual or social acceptability oteaching skills that benefit society at largeosome skills may be partially learnedoOverall restrictiveness is function of absolute level of restrictiveness, time to achieve acceptable outcome, and consequence of delayed interventionoEnsuring rights and welfare of individual is a value of beh analysts, requires the BA to be sensitive to the clients culture, may involve instituting special safeguardsoRights and prerogatives of client’s include support under the law, documentation of credentials, electronic recording kept secure and confidential, procedures for complaining being informed of one’s rightsoSelf determination is a value of BA fostered by teaching certain skills and at times it may require safeguards and restrictions not a good target behavioroDocument professional and scientific work: to meet requirement of law, to ensure accountability, in a manner that would be acceptable in an adjudicative forumoMost work = first author, some = 2nd, editing = footnote, chair = no recogSolicit or otherwise influence clients only through the use of truthful and accurate representations of intervention efficacy and one’s professional competence in ABApractice within one’s limits of professional competence in ABA, and obtain consultation, supervision, training, or make referrals as necessary. Maintain competence by engaging in ongoing professional development activities.Professional Competence - developed through: academic training = formal coursework, supervised practice, and mentored professional experiencePracticing w/in one’s area - practice within their areas of professional training, experience, and competence:People who come into contact with a client outside of their experience should make a referral to another behavior analystIncrease competence can be achieved by attending workshops, seminars, classes, and continuing educationShould work with mentors, supervisors, etc who can provide enhanced training and professional developmentMaintaining and expanding Professional Competence - ethical responsibility to stay informed of advancementsCEs - has added relevant awareness, knowledge, and or skillsAttend conference - enhances skills, participating helps refine skillsReading - fundamental way to maintain currencyOversight - all BA’s are subject to drift/errorMaking and Substantiating ClaimsDon’t say “I am certain” say “I have had success in the past with…”Don’t overstate Don’t present oneself as having training you don’t have Obtain informed consent within applicable legal and ethical standards Informed Consent - potential recepient of services gives explicit consent before services or assessments are done. More than just permission. Permissions must come AFTER full disclosure info is provided to participant3 Tests of Consent:-Person must be competent-Voluntary-Adequate knowledge of all salient aspects of treatmentCapacity-adequate mental process or faculty-ability to select/express his or her choices-ability to engage in rational process of decision making-considered incapacitated if a disability affects his or her ability to understand consequences of actions-ability to consent may change depending on complexity of procedureSurrogate Consent - when another person chooses based on what incapacitated would want, may not consent when person actively refuses. Measure of concern: decision making inferred or unknownGuardian Consent- obtained through a guardian when surrogate is n/a - person may be refusing treatment. Should be considered as a final option, can be limited by courtVoluntary- absence of coercion, duress, undue influence, and can be withdrawn at any time. Ensure by:-discuss topics related to assessment and treatment privately with advocate present-have discussions without time constraints-give time to think, discuss, and review all optionsKnowledge - need to provide:-important aspects of treatment-potential risks/benefits-potential alternative treatment-right to refuseProvide in non-technical terms, person must be able to answer questions about and be able to describe treatment in own wordsTreatment without consentConsent may be granted in case of life-threatening emergency or risk of harm…and school?Assist the client with identifying the life style or systems change goals and targets for behavior change that are consistent with:?The applied dimension of ABA?Applicable laws?The ethical and professional standards of the profession of ABAHelping Client select outcomes and behavior Targets:Outcomes-refers to lifestyle changes a client has identified as ultimate goals. In part refers to a quality of life issue-behavior must benefit the individual not the practitioner or caregiver-compliance is not a goal by itself, must facilitate development of other fxnal or social skills that will help achieve higher level of indp-to help select need to have understanding of variables that affect reinf assess, fxn of stimuli identified as reinf, and how these variables interactMaintaining Records-must keep records: assessment data, descriptions of interventions and progress notes confidential-release must be obtained-keep in secure area-facilitate provision of future services, meet agency requirements, ensure accurate billing, allow future research, and comply with legal standards-records disposal completeEnhancing scientific method-use measurably effective, research based methods and test emerging practices to assess their effectiveness before implementing-2 sources: scientific literature and direct and frequent measure of bx AND consult with professor who have encountered same problem-when confronted with data that differ from lit, practitioners are obliged to investigate further-cornerstone of ethical practice is providing effective treatment based on solid, replicated research evidenceEvidence based and least restrictive-evidence based and least intrusive-plans must be designed, implemented, and evaluated systematically-fail to show progress =modify -progress = plan out intervention, assess for generalization and maint-data and direct obs should drive decisionsWithdrawing effective intervention-Social concerns = key participants may not want reversal, unwise to attempt without full support even though its ethical-Educational concerns = don’t do extended reversals bc of lost learning time, should not be concerned that initial gains won’t be achieved again-Ethical concerns = need to use short reversals for moderate mild/aggressive SIB…unethical to do with intense aggressionEthics and neg reinf-cannot present extremely noxious events as antecedent in bx change-presence of aversive stimuli can generate bx that compete with acquisition of desired bx-undesirable side effects typically associated with punishment might be observed Ethics and Punishment-Safe and humane = must be physically safe and contain no elements that are degrading or disrespectful-Safe = noone is at physical, psychological, or social risk-Humane = designed for therapeutic effectiveness, delivered in compassionate and caring manner, assessed to determine effectiveness, sensitive and responsive to overall needsLeast restrictive alternative-intervene in least intrusive way -least intrusive way must be found to be ineffective before more intrusive procedures are implemented-the more a treatment procedure affects a person’s life = the more restrictiveDecision-making model-rule out assess considerations= inappropriate/ineffective schedules of Rx, ecological variables, and curriculum modification before punishment-relative concept that ultimately rests at the level of the person with whom it is applied and depends on procedural details-choose more intrusive/more effective over less intrusive/least effective-fxn of level of rest, time to produce outcome, and consequence of delayed intervention-decisions are based on: info obtained during assess, risk it possesses, and its controlling variables; consideration of available treatments, relative effectiveness, restrictiveness and side effects; examination of overall contextRight to effective treatment-punishment may be only option with dangerous bxTime out-removing to locked room is illegal unless part of overall plan and closely monitored-duration of t/o needs to be brief, less than 10 minStandards of professional practice-Professional Stds - written guidelines or rules of practice that provide direction for conducting the practices associated with an organizationRight to effective treatment-therapeutic environment, services whose overriding goal is welfare, competent BA, teach fxnal skills, assessment and ongoing eval, and most effective treatment procedures availableRight to effective education-rest on foundation of solid research and demonstrated effectiveness, address fxnal relations btw bx and environmental events and are monitored and evaluated on a systematic and ongoing basis.Initiate, continue, modify or discontinue behavior analysis services only when the risk-benefit ratio of doing so is lower than the risk-benefit ratio for taking alternative actions Identify and reconcile contingencies that compromise the practitioner – client covenant, including relationships among the practitioner, the client and other partiesConflict of interest:-occurs when a principal party, alone or in connection with family, friends, or associates, has a vested interest in the outcome of the interaction-most common: dual relationships - problem arise when therapist enters into another type of relationship may be financial, personal, professional, or otherwise-beneficial to therapist in some way-must monitor own bx with vigilance and guard against crossing any boundaries-should avoid at all costsUse the most effective assessment and behavior change procedures within applicable ethical standards taking into consideration the guideline of minimal intrusiveness of the procedure to the client Protect confidentiality Confidentiality -any info regarding an individual receiving or having received services may not be discussed with or otherwise made available to any 3rd party unless that individual has provided explicit authorization-limits: must be fully explained to client, does not extend to abusive situation and when knowledge of impeding harm to the indv or others is known-breaches: intentional is warranted when info is available that harm or danger is possible, unintentional happens when teacher gives out info but doesn’t confirm it is the right person-always assume confidentiality applies-protect by: lock file cabinets, passwords, avoid transfer of non-encyrpted info across wireless systems, and confirming an individual's status as surrogate Truthfully and accurately represent one’s contributions and those of the others to the practice, discipline and profession of ABA Ensure that the dignity, health and safety of one’s client are fully protected at all times.Dignity - person’s choices, privacy, respect can help maintain, by defining roles and using operant principles of bx, they teach skills that will enable learners to estb effective control over contingencies in the envChoice - central principle in delivery of ethical behavioral services, practitioners must provide client with behavioral alternative and person must be capable of performing those bx. To have a fair chance: must have alternatives, be able to perform alternatives, and able to experience natural consequences of alternatives. Give preference to assessment and intervention methods that have been scientifically validated and use scientific methods to evaluate those that have not yet been scientifically validated. ................
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