HANDBOOK OF - Elsevier
HANDBOOK OF
RADIOACTIVITY
ANALYSIS
Second Edition
With a foreword by
Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei
Director General
International Atomic Energy Agency
Edited by
Michael F. L’Annunziata
Elsevier Science
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
1. Introduction: Nuclear Radiation, Its Interaction with Matter and Radioisotope Decay
MICHAEL F. L’ANNUNZIATA
I. Introduction
II. Particulate Radiation
1 Alpha Particles
A. Negatrons
B. Positrons
1. N/Z Ratios and Nuclear Stability
2. Positron Emission versus Electron Capture
D. Beta-particle Absorption and Transmission
E. Internal Conversion Electrons
F. Auger Electrons
G. Neutron Radiation
1. Neutron Classification
2. Sources of Neutrons
a. Alpha Particle-Induced Nuclear Reactions
b. Spontaneous Fission
c. Neutron-Induced Fission
d. Photoneutron (γ,n) Sources
e. Accelerator Sources
f. Nuclear Fusion
3. Interaction of Neutrons with Matter
a. Elastic Scattering
b. Inelastic Scattering
c. Neutron Capture
d. Nonelastic Reactions
e. Nuclear Fission
4. Neutron Attenuation and Cross Sections
5. Neutron Decay
III. Electromagnetic Radiation
A. Dual Nature: Wave and Particle
B. Gamma Radiation
C. Annihilation Radiation
D. Cherenkov Radiation
E. X-Radiation
F. Bremsstrahlung
IV. Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter
A. Photoelectric Effect
B. Compton Effect
C. Pair Production
D. Combined Photon Interactions
V. Stopping Power and Linear Energy Transfer
A. Stopping Power
B. Linear Energy Transfer
VI. Radioisotope Decay
Half-life
A. General Decay Equations
B. Secular Equilibrium
C. Transient Equilibrium
D. No Equilibrium
E. More Complex Decay Schemes
VII. Radioactivity Units and Radionuclide Mass
Units of Radioactivity
A. Correlation of Radioactivity and Radionuclide Mass
B. Carrier-Free Radionuclides
References
2. Gas Ionization Detectors
KARL BUCHTELA
I. Introduction: Principles of Radiation Detection by Gas Ionization
II. Characteristics of gas Ionization Detectors
A. Ion Chambers
B. Proportional Counters
C. Geiger-Mueller Counters
III. Definition of Operating Characteristics of Gas Ionization Detectors
A. Counting Efficiency
B. Energy Resolution
C. Resolving Time
D. Localization
IV. Ion Chambers
Operating Mode of Ion Chambers
1. Ion Chambers Operating in the Current Mode
2. Charge Integration Ionization Chambers
3. Pulse Mode Ion Chambers
A. Examples and Applications of Ion Chambers
1. Calibration of Radioactive Sources
2. Measurement of Gases
3. Frisch Grid Ion Chambers
4. Radiation Spectroscopy with Ion Chambers
5. Electret Detectors
6. Fission Chambers
V. Proportional Gas Ionization Detectors
Examples and Applications of Proportional Counters
1. Gross Alpha-Beta Counting, Alpha-Beta Discrimination and Radiation Spectroscopy
2. Position-Sensitive Proportional Counters
a. Single-Wire Proportional Counters
b. Multiwire Proportional Counters
c. Microstrip and Micropattern Ionization Counters
d. Low-Level Counting Techniques Using Proportional Gas Ionization Detectors
3. Applications in Environmental Monitoring, and Health Physics
a. Radon in Water
b. Measurement of Plutonium-241
c. Measurement of Iron-55
d. Tritium in Air
e. Radiostrontium
f. Health Physics
VI. Geiger-Mueller Counters
Designs and Properties of Geiger-Mueller Counters
1. Fill Gas
2. Quenching
3. Plateau
4. Applications
a. Environmental Radioassay
VII. Special Types of Ionization Detectors
A. Neutron Detectors
1. BF3 Tube Construction
2. Detectors for Fast Neutrons
a. Long Counter
3. Neutron Counting in Nuclear Analysis of Fissile Materials and Radioactive Waste
4. Moisture Measurements
B. Multiple Sample Reading Systems
C. Self-Powered Detectors
D. Self-Quenched Streamer
E. Long-Range Alpha Detectors
F. Liquid Ionization and Proportional Detectors
G. Dynamic Random Access Memory Devices (DRAMs)
References
3. Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors
RADOMIR ILIĆ and SAEED A. DURRANI
I. Introduction
II. Fundamental Principles and Methods of Solid State Nuclear Track Detection
Physics and Chemistry of Nuclear Tracks
1. Formation of Latent Tracks
a. Factors Determining the Production of ‘Stable’/Etchable Tracks
2. Visualization of Tracks by Chemical and Electrochemical Etching
a. Chemical Etching (CE)
b. Electrochemical Etching (ECE)
Track Detector Types and Properties
1. General Properties
2. Ageing and Environmental Effects
A. Track Evaluation Methods
1. Manual/Ocular Counting
2. Spark Counting
3. Advanced Systems for Automatic Track Evaluation
Basics of Measurement Procedures
4. Revelation Efficiency
5. Sensitivity
6. Statistical Errors
7. Background Measurement
8. Calibration and Standardization
III. Measurements and Applications
A. Earth and Planetary Sciences
1. Radon Measurements
a. Response of Detectors to Radon and Radon Daughters
b. Types of Measurement
2. Fission Track Dating
3. Planetary Science
a. Lunar Samples
b. Meteoritic Samples
4. Cosmic Ray Measurements: Particle Identification
B. Physical Sciences
1. Particle Spectrometry
2. Heavy Ion Measurements
3. Neutron Measurements
a. Thermal Neutrons
b. Fast Neutrons
4. Nuclear and Reactor Physics
5. Radiography
6. Elemental Analysis and Mapping
C. Biological and Medical Sciences
1. Radiation Protection Dosimetry/Health Physics
a. Radon Dosimetry
b. Neutron Dosimetry
c. Heavy Ion Dosimetry
2. Environmental Sciences
a. Measurement of Uranium and Radium Concentrations in Water, Milk, Soil, and Plants, etc.
b. Plutonium in the Environment
c. ‘Hot Particle’ Measurements
3. Cancer Diagnostics and Therapy
IV. Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
4. Semiconductor Detectors
PAUL F. FETTWEIS, JAN VERPLANCKE, RAMKUMAR VENKATARAMAN,
BRIAN YOUNG and HAROLD SCHWENN
I. Introduction
A. The Gas-Filled Ionization Chamber
B. The Semiconductor Detector
C. Fundamental Differences between Ge and Si Detectors
1. The Energy Gap
2. The Atomic Number
3. The Purity or Resistivity of the Semiconductor Material
4. Charge Carrier Lifetime τ
II. Ge Detectors
High-Purity Ge Detectors
A. Analysis of Typical γ Spectra
1. Spectrum of a Source Emitting a Single γ Ray with Eγ ................
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