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Intelligence

INTRODUCTION: In 1917, as the United States mobilized its vast resources for the war against Germany, Professor Lewis Terman of Stanford University traveled east to meet with a group of prominent psychologists. Terman was an expert on intelligence testing, for he had pioneered the application of a French Intelligence test (developed by Alfred Binet) in the U.S. Terman, a devoted member of the Stanford University faculty, called his test the Stanford- Binet, and it was widely used in clinical settings.

But why was Terman meeting with other psychologists? Their goal: to develop some kind of psychological test that the U.S. Army could give to the thousands of new recruits coming into the army. The test would help them decide who had the intellectual potential to be an officer, who did not. Terman carried in his briefcase the rough materials his student Arthur Otis had designed for a questionnaire measure of intelligence. In several weeks the group of psychologists had designed the Army Alpha Examination, based on the Otis scales. The test was given to 1,700,000 men, and it seemed to work. Some were sent off to the trenches, and others were selected to lead them there. And psychologists, delighted with their success, began to spread their testing into civilian settings: particularly in educational settings.

School systems and colleges snatched up the tests for use in pupil classification, guidance, and admissions

Within 30 months of the first publication of the group test some four million children had been tested, and the IQ test was on its way to acceptance

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I. Intelligence Testing

A. Historical Development

1) Alfred Binet Charged by the Minister of Public Instruction in Paris to develop a method of detecting "defective" children who could then be given special instructions

Although he toyed with the idea of developing a physiological measure, he ended up with a test he called "aptitude for academic achievement"

this test was designed to be relevant in academic settings

Simple procedures used identified behaviors for each age (important - this test was age specific - also known as the "age-standard method"). This made it possible to establish range of normality ("norms"), then checked to see if the child/person possessed these abilities

a) 3 years: show eyes, nose, mouth, name objects in a picture, repeat figures, repeat a sentence of 6 syllables, give last name

b) 5 years: compare 2 boxes of different weights, copy a square, repeat a sentence of 10 syllables, put together 2 pieces of a game

c) 7 years: indicate omissions in drawings, copy a written sentence, copy a triangle and a diamond, etc.

d) 9 years: give the date complete, name days of the week, give definitions, memory

this measure proved highly successful in predicting school success

2) In 1916, an American psychologist (TERMAN) revised and translated the test

a) problem: unfair to say an 8 year old is more intelligent than a 6 year old simply because he or she gets more questions right

b) need to adjust for chronological age

c) He used the formula IQ = MA/CA X 100 (to get rid of decimals) - HOWEVER, this formula was actually developed by William Stern in 1912 in order to avoid the inconvenience of decimals.

For example - A 10 year old with a mental age of 8 has a ratio of 8/10 = .8 and a 6 year old with a mental age of 4 has a ratio of 4/6 = .67. This indicates that the 6 year old is relatively farther behind his or her age peers.

STERN then got rid of the decimal point so .8 becomes 80, and .67 becomes 67. d. if 100, just right. This would mean that a person has the same mental age and chronological age.

B. Types of Tests

1) Individual Tests

a) Stanford-Binet: This made it possible to test adults & children

1. established the procedures to use in administering the test - takes 1 hour or more so it was not good for collecting data from groups very quickly. This was not good if you wanted to test military troops - So, Otis instead created an oral intelligence test (goes back to introduction).

2. established the norms for the test (e.g., how many an "X" year old got correct) But, there is still a problem here. This test still utilized the intelligence quotient developed by Stern - but mental age slows dramatically after childhood. So, someone could go from gifted as a young person, to mentally challenged as an older adult without actually getting "less intelligent".

Example: a 15 year old female with a mental age of 20: 20/15 x 100 = 133, which would classify her as "gifted". Then, as an adult of age 40, let's say she retained the mental age of 20: 20/40 x 100 = 50. Now she would be classified as mentally retarded, yet she may be successful doctor. This problem was overcome by the introduction of the DEVIATION IQ, by Wechsler.

3. Wechsler tests

This scale compares a person's intelligence test scores with those of the mean scores of their age peers. Those who perform exactly the same as their age peers would receive the score of 100.

a) developed many tests, three very important: WISC (W Int. Scale for Children), the WAIS (W. adult int. scale), and the WPPSI (W preschool and primary scale of intelligence; good for ages 4-6 1/2)

b) attempted to bring in more behavioral measures rather than just verbal

c) two subsections: verbal subtests, performance subtests - verbal: information, comprehension, arithmetic, digit span, similarities, and vocabulary -performance: picture arrangement, picture completion, block design, etc.

 C. Forms of Intelligence

1) Basic approach: verbal and math

2) Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg performed poorly on IQ tests as a child and suffered from severe test anxiety. Yet he was able to become a successful cognitive psychologist and a leader in the field of intelligence. This was a major influence in his belief that intelligence was much more than those abilities measured by traditional intelligence tests. He and colleagues wanted to know what the "lay person" though intelligence was so they interviewed many people. Most people indicated that intelligent people have good verbal skills, problem-solving skills, and social judgment.

Thus, he developed the Triarchic theory which is comprised of the following:

a) componential intelligence - reflects our information-processing abilities. This is similar to traditional intelligence tests.

b) experiential intelligence - ability to combine different experiences in insightful ways to solve novel problems. Reflects creativity.

c) contextual intelligence - ability to function in practical, everyday social situations. Reflects "street smarts".

Sternberg recognized that situations may call for one type or a combination of all three, and that each can be improved through training. D. IQ Controversies

3) Questions to consider

a) What does the IQ Test Measure? Intelligence?

e.g., the California Legislature has twice voted to prohibit group testing in schools on the grounds their effect is to limit the quality of education given to minority students. Many experts have gone on record as opposing IQ tests as invalid, easily altered by special coaching, and monopolizing the testing industry.

Intelligence ----> IQ score Intelligence + Other Factors -----> IQ score

b) Are IQ tests Valid (fair)? -why is there a difference between groups on the IQ test?

c) Is Intelligence Genetically determined Nurture Nature -learning -instinct -experience -innate determinant -flexible -inflexible, wired in -acquired -genetic

Intelligence: mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Test: a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.

Reification: When we view an abstract concept (like intelligence) as if it were a concrete thing, we have made the error of reification.

                   

     Distribution of IQ Scores

1. Theories of Intelligence

Francis Galton (late 1800's): He believed that some people were more superior than others with respect to intelligence.  He felt those people should be encouraged to mate and that less superior people should not be all owed to produce offspring (eugenics movement).  He felt you could determine one's intelligence by measuring his/her head size, body proportions, and reaction time.

2. Charles Spearman (1930's): Noted that people "smart" in one area were often skilled in other areas.  Thus, he believed in an underlying general intelligence or g-factor.

        g-factor: a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

L.L. Thurstaone (1930's):  Disagreed with Spearman.  He identified "8 Primary Mental Abilities" and believed they were all independent from each other.  They included: perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, spatial skills, reasoning, word fluency, & comprehension.  The existence of Savant Syndrome supports his viewpoint.

        Savant Syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or music. Howard Gardner (1980--): agreed with Thurstone in that intellectual skills were independent of one another.  He identified 8 independent multiple intelligences: logical/mathematical, spatial, linguistic, body-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, & naturalist.

Robert Sternberg (1980--):  believed there are 3 general types of IQ.  He called this the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

        Academic (or analytic): intelligence which is assessed by intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems with a single correct answer (i.e., school smarts).

        Creative: intelligence demonstrated by reacting adaptively to new situations and generating novel ideas.

        Practical: intelligence required for everyday tasks, which are frequently ill-defined with multiple solutions (i.e., street or business smarts).

Other Types of Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.

Creativity: the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

                  

Brain Functions and Intelligence

While Galton was incorrect and you cannot determine IQ from head size, there is a moderate correlation (+.44) between brain volume and IQ (i.e., more cortical tissue and 17% more synapses in educated versus less educated people). Also, we find moderate correlations between IQ and (1) processing speed; (2) perceptual speed and; (3) neurological speed.

                 

ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE

Aptitude Test: a test designed to predict a person's future performance. Aptitude refers to the capacity to learn (IQ tests are considered to be aptitude tests).

Achievement Test: a test designed to assess what a person has already learned (e.g., AP exams, driver's license test).

**While the SAT is designed to predict future performance (and is thus an aptitude test), it is clearly also an achievement test.                     

Alfred Binet: Along with Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test in France in 1904.  It was designed to measure a child's mental age in order to predict future school performance.  The test was called the Simon-Binet Intelligence Test.  It was later revised at Stanford University by Lewis Terman and is now known today as the Stanford-Binet.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): defined originally (Stern) as the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = MA/CA * 100).  On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC):  These are the 2 most frequently used IQ tests in the US.  They provide a verbal IQ along with a non-verbal or performance IQ.  They also provide an overall or full-scale IQ score.  The Wechsler tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

                   

Principles of Test Construction

1. Standardization: defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group".

2. Normal Curve: the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological traits (including intelligence). Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test (split-half reliability) or on retesting at a later date (test-retest reliability).

3. Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

        a) Face Validity: the extent to which questions on a test appear to measure the construct of interest.

        b) Content Validity: extent to which a test actually measures the construct of interest.

        c) Predictive Validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. 

This is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (also called criterion-related validity).

4. Criterion: the behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict.

                 

Extremes of Intelligence

Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an IQ score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.

Down Syndrome: a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup.

          

GENETICS & ENVIRONMENT

Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals on a particular trait that can attributed to the differences in their genes.

IQ and Genetics

Twin & adoption studies show that genetics do play a role in intelligence (e.g., IQ's of identical twins correlate at about .85, while fraternal twins at about .60).

However, the same studies show how important environment is in that identical twins reared together correlate at .85, while those raised in different homes correlate at .71.

Most psychologist agree that differences in group IQ scores based on ethnic background or gender are due to environmental differences not genetics.

Brief information about the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

• David Wechsler designed intelligence tests made up of items that are appropriate for a wide range of ages.

• There are three main types of Wechsler intelligence tests:

o Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - 3-7 years

o Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC) - 7-16 years

o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 16 years and over

• The first was the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1939).

• Replaced 1955 by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

• 1981 revision is referred to as the WAIS-R.

• A subsequent revision was conducted in the US in 1997 and the present scale is the 3rd edition, known as the WAIS-III.  The revised version has almost 80 per cent of the original form. A number of improvements have been made including an attempt to make it more culturally fair.

• The WAIS(R) was standardised on a sample of 1,800 U.S. subjects, ranging from 16 to 74 years of age. It was a highly stratified sample, broken down into 9 different age groups. Equal numbers of men and women were used, as were white and nonwhite subjects, in line with census figures. It was further broken down into four geographic U.S. regions and six occupational categories. There was also an attempt to balance urban and rural subjects. The mean I.Q. for each age group on this test is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. The WAIS scales have impressive reliability and validity.

• There are different adaptations of the scale by country.  For example, in Australia we have the Australian adaptation of the WAIS-R (1989). 

• 11 separate subtests, which are broken into the Verbal scale (6 subtests) and the Performance scale (5 subtests). 

• A person taking the test receives a full-scale IQ score, a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, as well as scaled scores on each of the subtests.

WAIS Scales

• Verbal WAIS scales

1. Information: 29 questions - a measure of general knowledge.

2. Digit Span: Subjects are given sets of digits to repeat initially forwards then backwards. This is a test of immediate auditory recall and freedom from distraction.

3. Vocabulary: Define 35 words. A measure of expressive word knowledge. It correlates very highly with Full Scale IQ

4. Arithmetic: 14 mental arithmetic brief story type problems. tests distractibility as well as numerical reasoning.

5. Comprehension: 16 questions which focus on issues of social awareness.

6. Similarities: A measure of concept formation. Subjects are asked to say how two seemingly dissimilar items might in fact be similar.

• Performance WAIS scales

7. Picture Completion: 20 small pictures that all have one vital detail missing. A test of attention to fine detail.

8. Picture Arrangement: 10 sets of small pictures, where the subject is required to arrange them into a logical sequence.

9. Block Design: Involves putting sets of blocks together to match patterns

on cards.

10. Digit Symbol: Involves copying a coding pattern.

11. Object Assembly: Four small jig-saw type puzzles.

Interpretation of the WAIS (R)

• Three IQ scores are obtained from the WAIS(R):

1. Verbal IQ

2. Performance IQ

3. Full Scale IQ

1. Francis Galton: The 1st Modern Attempt (late 1800s)

Intelligence tests are grounded in the work of Francis Galton in the late 19th century. Galton is considered to be the father of the study of individual differences [and, incidentally was the half-cousin of Charles Darwin]. For Galton, measurement of intelligence was to be as direct as possible a measure of underlying intelligence. Hence, Galton suggested reaction time as a feasible approach and pursued various sensori-motor measurements.

Interestingly, more contemporary "Galton-like" approaches are being pursued by psychologists such as Arthur Jensen and Mike Andersen who assert that they are assessing the integrity of the central nervous system - inherent capabilities (Intelligence A) - as opposed to manifestations of intelligence in everyday life (Intelligence B). (Weinberg, 1989).

2. Alfred Binet: The origins of IQ Testing (early 1900’s)

Alfred Binet is celebrated in history as the man who created the first 'intelligence test' in the form as we know them today. He is commonly known as the “father” of IQ testing.

In 1904, Binet was commissioned by the French Ministry of Public Instruction to develop techniques for identifying primary grade children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education (Gould, 1981).

In 1905 he produced the Binet-Simon scale [with Theodore Simon] - the first intelligence test. Binet took a pragmatic approach, choosing a series of 30 short tasks related to everyday problems of life (e.g.

attend to simple instructions

• name parts of the body

• compare lengths and weights

• counting coins,

• assessing which of several faces is 'prettier',

• naming objects in a picture,

• digit span (the number of digits a person can recall after being shown a long list),

• word definition

• filling in the missing words in sentences, etc.

Supposedly all these tasks involved basic processes of reasoning.

The tests were arranged so as to be of increasing difficulty. Each level of tests matched a specific developmental level - i.e. all tests at a given level were capable of being solved by any normal child in that specific age-group.

This was a turning point in psychology: A new type of test had been produced in which the average level of performance was the criterion. In 1908 the test was revised and then again in 1911. This edition was the model for many future tests. The test results proved to be correlated with other criteria (e.g. results of school examinations, assessments of teachers, etc.)

3 & 4. Terman (1916) and Stern (1912)

Lewis Terman (1877-1956) of Stanford University in the US decided to use Binet's test. He found that the Paris-developed age norms didn't work very well for Californian school children. So he revised the test: adapted some items, added other items, established new age norms, and extended the upper age limit to "superior adults". This became the Stanford-Binet revision in 1916. In this revision the Intelligence quotient first appeared. The Intelligence Quotient or IQ was a score meant to quantify intellectual functioning to allow comparison among individuals. To arrive at an IQ score, Terman relied on a formula expressing the relation between an individual’s mental age and chronological age developed in 1912 in Germany by Wilhelm Stern: 1912 Wilhelm Stern proposed the following formula:

IQ = mental age x 100

chronological age

This formula works fairly well for children but not for adults (Thomson, 1968; Weinberg, 1989)

5. Yerkes: Army Tests (WWI)

The US army at the beginning of WWI was faced with the problem of assessing the intelligence of great numbers of recruits in order to screen, classify, and assign them to suitable tasks. The Stanford-Binet test required a highly trained person for individual administration - thus it would prove time consuming and costly for large-scale use.

So, when the US entered WWI in 1917 a committee was appointed by the APA to consider ways that psychology might assist the conduct of the war. Head of this committee was Robert Yerkes. His brief was to develop group intelligence testing.

Robert Yerkes, a psychologist and army major, assembled a staff of 40 psychologists [including Terman] to develop a group intelligence test. This resulted in the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests. The Beta was a version of the Alpha specifically for use with non-English-speaking and illiterate persons. [Instructions to those taking the Beta were given by demonstration or pantomime, rather than orally or in writing.]

In the end, over a million people were tested, but not until late in the war. Thus the work actually had little effect on the war, but did a great deal to enhance the status of psychology. After the war, industry, business and education saw potential value of psychological testing

Note that the validity of the Beta test, in particular, has since been questioned rather damningly by Gould (1981).

6. Charles Spearman: “g” (1920’s)

Up to now, the approaches to intelligence had been very pragmatic - i.e. tests were developed for particular needs. However, another approach to understanding intelligence, involved analysing data that was already collected.

Charles Spearman (1927) analysed the relations among experimental intelligence tests using 'factor analysis'. He argued that, as a rule, people who do well on some intelligence tests also do well on a variety of intellectual tasks [vocabulary and mathematical and spatial abilities]. And if people did poorly on an intelligence test, then they also tended to do poorly on other intellectual tests. That is, he observed correlations among performance on a variety of intellectual tasks.

Thus, he proposed, a 'two-factor' theory of intelligence:

- General Ability (g): which was required for performance of mental tests of all kinds; he called this a kind of 'mental energy' that underlies the specific factors

- Special Abilities: which were required for performance on just one kind of mental test.

- e.g. Scores on a verbal comprehension test are largely determined by one’s level of general intelligence but they are also affected by one’s specific ability to perform verbal comprehension tasks.

But the main thrust of Spearman's analysis was this idea of a general intellectual capacity. This formed a major theoretical platform for many subsequent approaches to intelligence.

It might be also noted, however, that Spearman was perhaps excessively enthusiastic about g. For example, he advocated restricting voting rights to people whose g exceeded a certain level, and he was a eugenicist (eugenics comes from the Greek "eugenes" meaning well-born) - arguing that only people with a certain level of g should be allowed to have offspring.

"g" was controversial then as now. 

7. Weschler: Intelligence Scales for Adults and Children (1939 - present)

Another test designer was David Wechsler. Wechsler felt that the Binet scales were too verbally loaded for use with adults, so he designed an instrument with sub-tests to measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities, largely borrowing from many other tests, such as the US Army Alpha test. He adopted a mean score of 100, since the Stanford-Binet metric had become universally accepted. The original Weschsler-Bellevue test in 1939 proved quite successful in civilian and military applications.

In 1949, Wechsler produced the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), which competed with the Stanford-Binet test.

In 1955, he produced a revision of the adult scales named the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). And later he produced a scale which could be used with pre-primary children.

These scales have all been revised, but still show a distinct resemblance to the original 1939 scale.

8. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities (1930’s)

Another 'factor analyst', Thurstone (1938), accepted Spearman's hypothesis of a general factor. But he disputed its importance. He argued that g is in fact a second order factor or phenomenon - one which arises only because the primary or 'first-order' factors are related to one another. Thus, Thurstone identified 7 'primary mental abilities' which he judged to be more important. These were:

1.Verbal Comprehension: vocabulary, reading, comprehension, verbal analogies, etc.

2. Word fluency: the ability to quickly generate and manipulate a large number of words with specific characteristics, as in anagrams or rhyming tests

3. Number: the ability to quickly and accurately carry out mathematical operations

4. Space: spatial visualizations as well as ability to mentally transform spatial figures

5. Associative Memory: rote memory

6. Perceptual Speed: quickness in perceiving visual details, anomalies, similarities, etc.

7. Reasoning: skill in a variety of inductive, deductive, and arithmetic reasoning tasks

So, Thurstone's approach constituted the first multi-factor approach to intelligence.

Thurstone's tests have largely dropped out of use because the hope that they would be able to more accurately predict academic or occupational performance than general intelligence was not fulfilled.

Nevertheless, the main argument and findings are important: that intelligence is better described and measured by considering distinct primary mental abilities, rather than a single factor g which does not provide specific information about specific intelligences.

(see Flanagan, Genshaft & Harrison, 1997; Murphy & Davidshofer, 1998).

9. Raymond Cattell: Fluid & Crystallised Intelligence (1960’s)

Raymond Cattell (1963) [not to be confused with James McKeen Cattell, a contemporary of Galton's who was also significantly involved in early attempts at psychological measurement] suggested that there are two related but distinct components of g: fluid and crystallised intelligence.

Fluid: ability to see relationships, as in analogies and letter and number series = primary reasoning ability

Crystallised: acquired knowledge and skills = factual knowledge

Fluid intelligence decreases with age and crystallised intelligence increases with age. Thus mathematicians and scientists, who need fluid intelligence, produce their best work in thier 20s and 30s; whereas those in the field of history, philosophy and literature produce their best work in their 40s, 50s and beyond as they have accumulated more knowledge. Interestingly, poets, who depend more on fluid than crystallised intelligence, produce their best work earlier than prose authors: this has been observed in all cultures, languages and throughout history.

11. Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences (1980s to the present)

Howard Gardner (1983; 1993) supports Thurstone’s notion that intelligence comes in different packages. The most widely cited version of Gardner’s concept of intelligence is that there are seven different types of intelligence. Gardner has played around with this number and suggested a possible one or two more or even (in 1999) the possibility of a smaller number of intelligences. He argues that the seven intelligences are: verbal, mathematical, musical, spatial, kinaesthetic, interpersonal (social skills) and intrapersonal (self-understanding) functioning. He argues that these different intelligences are independent of one another.  Critics argue: not all these things are intelligence: More next week.

12. Robert Sternberg (1970s to present)

Robert Sternberg (1977, 1985) together with his colleague Richard Wagner (1993, 1995) argues that there are three intelligences:

• Academic

• Practical

• Creative

Sternberg and Wagner have designed a test of practical intelligence.

The Binet-Simon test was revised in 1908 and 1911 and then received a major revision in 1916 and was renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.  Part of the revision was the invention of the "Intelligence Quotient", better well-known as IQ. 

Lewis Terman (an American professor from Stanford University) then worked with Binet to produce a major revision in 1916.  The Binet-Simon test was renamed as the Stanford-Binet test.  The Stanford-Binet can be used with children from the age of about 2 and a half years.

Part of Terman's major revision was to re-conceptualize the relationship between Chronological Age and Mental Age.

• Chronological Age (CA) (i.e. Biological age)

• Mental Age (MA) (i.e. Level of intellectual performance

Terman realized that the ratio between MA and CA was a better indicator of intelligence than MA alone e.g., for example

• MA = 7 years / CA = 5 years (IQ=140 which means gifted)

• MA = 7 years / CA = 9 years (IQ=78 which means retarded)

The formula for calculating IQ developed by Terman was 100 x MA / CA.

There are some problems with calculating I.Q. scores in this way.

For example, do Person 1 and Person 2 have the same level of intellectual superiority?

• Person 1: Mental Age = 5  years / Chronological Age 4 years = IQ 125

• Person 2: Mental Age = 10 years / Chronological Age 8 years = IQ 125

A second problem with the IQ = 100 x MA/CA formula is in measuring adults:

Mental Age does not steadily increase throughout the lifespan, but Chronological Age does.  So, an 85-year is not likely to have gained any greater capacity than when he/she was an 60-year old. Mental Age levels off around the end of adolescence, but  Chronological Age gets higher, resulting in lower IQ scores as adults get older!

A third problem was that IQs do not fall strictly along a bell-shaped curve.  There is a higher incidence of very high (there something like 50 times are many people with very high IQs than expected from a normal curve), with a similar though not as large effect for those with very low scores.

A fourth problem was that it was difficult to convert to IQ scores from other achievement and ability tests.

Because of these problems, MA is no longer used in calculating IQ scores - instead "deviation IQ" is used.

Deviation IQ uses a scale which is based on the actual rarity with which ratio IQ scores actually occur.  Thus, it deflates the bulges in the curve, and makes a smooth bell-curve out of the data.  Basically, people are allocated to percentiles rather than actual scores, so "deviation IQs" perfectly fit a normal curve.  This is pretty simple to do, by looking up a chart that shows the match between someone's percentile rating and deviation IQ scores (based on a distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15). 

For example, if one scores in the 96th percentile on an IQ test, then this can be read off a generic IQ chart as an IQ of 128.

Overview of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Gardner continues in the tradition of Thurstone's proposal that there is no g (general intelligence) but rather multiple, distinct intelligences.  Gardner proposes seven intelligences (although he does not limit the possible number)

1. Linguistic intelligence

2. Musical intelligence

3. Logical- mathematical intelligence

4. Spatial intelligence

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence

6. Interpersonal intelligence

7. Interpersonal intelligence

Additional 'candidate' intelligences are:

• Naturalistic intelligence (ability to discern patterns in nature - e.g. Darwin)

• Spiritual Intelligence - recognition of the spiritual

Existential intelligence - concern with 'ultimate issues'

Gardner's approach to intelligence

Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 1999) believes that we have multiple intelligences, rather than a general intelligence that underlies performance in all tasks (g).

In arguing that there are distinct and separate components to intelligence Gardner offers nothing particularly new. However, what is new about Gardner's work is that he does not attempt to support his approach purely through statistical reanalysis of data (e.g. as Thurstone did), but instead he has looked at various "signs" to inform his theory of what constitutes intelligence.

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory is supported by the current anti-g Zeitgeist. He also suggests that different cultures highlight certain intelligences & minimize others.

Gardner's Seven Intelligences

Gardner concludes that the cumulative evidence points to seven (or possibly eight) distinct intelligences. The first three are somewhat similar to previous components of intelligence identified by other approaches; whereas the second four/five are more novel. He believes these develop differently in different people due to both heredity and training. He believes that all need to be measured to provide a truly global assessment of intelligence.

1. Linguistic Intelligence: involved in reading, writing, listening and talking

2. Logical-Mathematic Intelligence: involved in solving logical puzzles, deriving proofs, performing calculations

3. Spatial Intelligence: involved in moving from one location to another or determining one's orientation in space

4. Musical Intelligence: involved in playing, composing, singing and conducting. Furthermore, Gardner believes that auto mechanics and cardiologists may have this kind of intelligence in abundance as they make diagnoses on the careful listening to patterns of sounds.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence: involved in using one's body (or parts of it) to perform skilful and purposeful movements (dancers, athletes and surgeons)

6. Intrapersonal Intelligence: involved in understanding oneself and having insight into one's own thoughts, actions and emotions (self-understanding).

7. Interpersonal functioning: involved in understanding of others and one's relations to others. Being high in social skills (psychologists, teachers and politicians are supposed to be high in this type of intelligence).

8. The eighth intelligence was proposed by Gardner in 1999 and he calls it Naturalistic Intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to understand and work effectively in the natural world. This is exemplified by biologists and zoologists.

Strengths of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

• helps to explain the variety of individual differences in different types of mental performance

• based in developmental, clinical, case study and educational evidence

Criticisms of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

• narrow intelligences may meet criteria, e.g. 20 to 30 intelligences may also have been convincing

• are these intelligences or just 'abilities'?  (and what is the difference?) - musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, intra and interpersonal are a source of some controversy

• doesn't explain why some people are more intelligent than others

• these 'intelligences' are not all essential for successful adaptation (one of the common definitions of intelligence)

• ultimately there is not really much HARD scientific evidence.

Intelligence Study Guide Questions

|___ 1. |Most experts view intelligence as a person's: |

|A) |ability to perform well on intelligence tests. |

|B) |innate mental capacity. |

|C) |ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. |

|D) |diverse skills acquired throughout life. |

|___ 2. |By creating a label such as “gifted,” we begin to act as if all children are naturally divided into two categories, gifted and nongifted. This |

| |logical error is referred to as: |

| |A) rationalization. B) nominalizing. C) factor analysis. D) reification. |

|___ 3. |Which of the following is not a requirement of a good test? |

| |A) reliability B) standardization C) reification D) validity |

|___ 4. |The concept of a g factor implies that intelligence: |

|A) |is a single overall ability. |C) |cannot be defined or measured. |

|B) |is several specific abilities. |D) |is both a. and c. |

|___ 5. |Melvin has been diagnosed as having savant syndrome, which means that he: |

|A) |has an IQ of 120 or higher. |

|B) |would score high on a test of analytical intelligence. |

|C) |is mentally retarded but has one exceptional ability. |

|D) |was exposed to high levels of testosterone during prenatal development. |

|___ 6. |The existence of ________ reinforces the generally accepted notion that intelligence is a multidimensional quality. |

| |A) adaptive skills B) mental retardation C) general intelligence D) savant syndrome |

|___ 7. |Don's intelligence scores were only average, but he has been enormously successful as a corporate manager. Psychologists Sternberg and Wagner would|

| |probably suggest that: |

|A) |Don's verbal intelligence exceeds his performance intelligence. |

|B) |Don's performance intelligence exceeds his verbal intelligence. |

|C) |Don's academic intelligence exceeds his practical intelligence. |

|D) |Don's practical intelligence exceeds his academic intelligence. |

|___ 8. |Gerardeen has superb social skills, manages conflicts well, and has great empathy for her friends and co-workers. Peter Salovey and John Mayer |

| |would probably say that Gerardeen possesses a high degree of: |

| |A) g. B) social intelligence. C) practical intelligence. D) emotional intelligence. |

|___ 9. |Which of the following best describes the relationship between creativity and intelligence? |

|A) |Creativity appears to depend on the ability to think imaginatively and has little if any relationship to intelligence. |

|B) |Creativity is best understood as a certain kind of intelligence. |

|C) |The more intelligent a person is, the greater his or her creativity. |

|D) |A certain level of intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. |

|___ 10. |Vanessa is a very creative sculptress. We would expect that Vanessa also: |

|A) |has an exceptionally high intelligence score. |

|B) |is quite introverted. |

|C) |has a venturesome personality and is intrinsically motivated. |

|D) |lacks expertise in most other skills. |

|___ 11. |When highly skilled people are performing a task, their brains: |

|A) |retrieve information from memory more quickly. |

|B) |register simple stimuli more quickly. |

|C) |demonstrate a more complex brain-wave response to stimuli. |

|D) |do all of the above. |

|___ 12. |The test created by Alfred Binet was designed specifically to: |

|A) |measure inborn intelligence in adults. |

|B) |measure inborn intelligence in children. |

|C) |predict school performance in children. |

|D) |identify mentally retarded children so that they could be institutionalized. |

|___ 13. |Benito was born in 1937. In 1947, he scored 130 on an intelligence test. What was Benito's mental age when he took the test? |

| |A) 9 B) 10 C) 11 D) 13 |

|___ 14. |Originally, IQ was defined as: |

|A) |mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. |

|B) |chronological age divided by mental age and multiplied by 100. |

|C) |mental age subtracted from chronological age and multiplied by 100. |

|D) |chronological age subtracted from mental age and multiplied by 100. |

|___ 15. |A 6-year-old child has a mental age of 9. The child's IQ is: |

| |A) 96. B) 100. C) 125. D) 150. |

|___ 16. |If asked to guess the intelligence score of a stranger, your best guess would be: |

| |A) 75. B) 100. C) 125. D) “I don't know; intelligence scores vary too widely.” |

|___ 17. |The formula for the intelligence quotient was devised by: |

| |A) Sternberg. B) Binet. C) Terman. D) Stern. |

|___ 18. |Current intelligence tests compute an individual's intelligence score as: |

|A) |the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. |

|B) |the ratio of chronological age to mental age multiplied by 100. |

|C) |the amount by which the test-taker's performance deviates from the average performance of others the same age. |

|D) |the ratio of the test-taker's verbal intelligence score to his or her nonverbal intelligence score. |

|___ 19. |According to the text, what can be concluded from early intelligence testing in the United States? |

|A) |Most European immigrants were “feeble-minded.” |

|B) |Army recruits of other than West European heritage were intellectually deficient. |

|C) |The tests were biased against people who did not share the culture assumed by the test. |

|D) |Both a. and b. could be concluded. |

|___ 20. |Before becoming attorneys, law students must pass a special licensing exam, which is an ________ test. Before entering college, high school |

| |students must take the SAT, which is an ________ test. |

| |A) achievement; aptitude B) aptitude; achievement C) achievement; achievement D) aptitude; aptitude |

|___ 21. |Tests of ________ measure what an individual can do now, whereas tests of ________ predict what an individual will be able to do later. |

| |A) aptitude; achievement B) achievement; aptitude C) reliability; validity D) validity; reliability |

|___ 22. |If you wanted to develop a test of musical aptitude in North American children, which would be the appropriate standardization group? |

|A) |children all over the world |C) |children of musical parents |

|B) |North American children |D) |children with known musical ability |

|___ 23. |Standardization refers to the process of: |

|A) |determining the accuracy with which a test measures what it is supposed to. |

|B) |defining meaningful scores relative to a representative pretested group. |

|C) |determining the consistency of test scores obtained by retesting people. |

|D) |measuring the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. |

|___ 24. |The bell-shaped distribution of intelligence scores in the general population is called a: |

| |A) g distribution. B) standardization curve. C) bimodal distribution. D) normal distribution. |

|___ 25. |Over the past 80 years, college aptitude test scores have ________ and WAIS scores have ________. |

| |A) declined; remained stable B) remained stable; declined C) risen; declined D) declined; risen |

|___ 26. |Jack takes the same test of mechanical reasoning on several different days and gets virtually identical scores. This suggests that the test has: |

| |A) high content validity. B) high reliability. C) high predictive validity. D) been standardized. |

|___ 27. |A school psychologist found that 85 percent of those who scored above 115 on an aptitude test were “A” students and 75 percent of those who scored |

| |below 85 on the test were “D” students. The psychologist concluded that the test had high: |

|A) |content validity because scores on it correlated highly with the criterion behavior. |

|B) |predictive validity because scores on it correlated highly with the criterion behavior. |

|C) |content validity because scores on it correlated highly with the target behavior. |

|D) |predictive validity because scores on it correlated highly with the target behavior. |

|___ 28. |If a test designed to indicate which applicants are likely to perform the best on the job fails to do so, the test has: |

| |A) low reliability. B) low content validity. C) low predictive validity. D) not been standardized. |

|___ 29. |You would not use a test of hearing acuity as an intelligence test because it would lack: |

| |A) content reliability. B) predictive reliability. C) predictive validity. D) content validity. |

|___ 30. |Which of the following is true of people who score high on aptitude tests? |

|A) |They achieve greater career success. |C) |They always do well in college. |

|B) |They are likely to be happier. |D) |None of the above is true. |

|___ 31. |Amelia recently took a test that assessed her ability to perform at the college level. The test she took was the: |

| |A) WAIS. B) WISC. C) SAT. D) None of the above, because they are all achievement tests. |

|___ 32. |Which of the following statements is true? |

|A) |The predictive validity of intelligence tests is not as high as their reliability. |

|B) |The reliability of intelligence tests is not as high as their predictive validity. |

|C) |Modern intelligence tests have extremely high predictive validity and reliability. |

|D) |The predictive validity and reliability of most intelligence tests is very low. |

|___ 33. |Studies of 2- to 7-month-old babies show that babies who quickly become bored with a picture: |

|A) |often develop learning disabilities later on. |

|B) |score lower on infant intelligence tests. |

|C) |score higher on intelligence tests several years later. |

|D) |score very low on intelligence tests several years later. |

|___ 34. |At age 16, Angel's intelligence score was 110. What will her score probably be at age 32? |

| |A) 125 B) 110 C) 115 D) There is no basis for predicting an individual's future IQ. |

|___ 35. |A high-school psychologist who is looking at a student's intelligence score finds a jump of 30 points between the earliest score at age 2 and the |

| |most recent at age 17. The psychologist's knowledge of testing would probably lead her to conclude that such a jump: |

|A) |indicates that different tests were used, creating an apparent change in intelligence level, although it actually remained stable. |

|B) |signals a significant improvement in the child's environment over this period. |

|C) |is unsurprising, since intelligence scores do not become stable until late adolescence. |

|D) |is mainly the result of the age at which the first test was taken. |

|___ 36. |By what age does a child's performance on an intelligence test stabilize? |

| |A) 2 B) 3 C) 6 D) 7 |

|___ 37. |Before about age ________, intelligence tests generally do not predict future scores. |

| |A) 1 B) 3 C) 5 D) 10 |

|___ 38. |Twenty-two-year-old Dan has an intelligence score of 63 and the academic skills of a fourth-grader, and is unable to live independently. Dan |

| |probably: |

|A) |has Down syndrome. |

|B) |has savant syndrome. |

|C) |is mentally retarded. |

|D) |will eventually achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills. |

|___ 39. |Down syndrome is normally caused by: |

|A) |an extra chromosome in the person's genetic makeup. |

|B) |a missing chromosome in the person's genetic makeup. |

|C) |malnutrition during the first few months of life. |

|D) |prenatal exposure to an addictive drug. |

|___ 40. |Which of the following statements is true? |

|A) |About 1 percent of the population is mentally retarded. |

|B) |More males than females are mentally retarded. |

|C) |A majority of the mentally retarded can learn academic skills. |

|D) |All of the above are true. |

|___ 41. |In his study of children with high intelligence scores, Terman found that: |

|A) |the children were more emotional and less healthy than a control group. |

|B) |the children were ostracized by classmates. |

|C) |the children were healthy and well-adjusted, and did well academically. |

|D) |later, as adults, they nearly all achieved great vocational success. |

|___ 42. |Sorting children into gifted and nongifted educational groups: |

|A) |creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. |C) |promotes racial segregation and prejudice. |

|B) |increases social isolation between groups. |D) |has all of the above effects. |

|___ 43. |Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of the role of heredity in determining intelligence? |

|A) |The IQ scores of identical twins raised separately are more similar than those of fraternal twins raised together. |

|B) |The intelligence scores of fraternal twins are more similar than those of ordinary siblings. |

|C) |The intelligence scores of identical twins raised together are more similar than those of identical twins raised apart. |

|D) |The intelligence scores of adopted children show relatively weak correlations with scores of adoptive as well as biological parents. |

|___ 44. |Current estimates are that ________ percent of the total variation among intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic factors. |

| |A) less than 10 B) approximately 25 C) between 50 and 75 D) over 75 |

|___ 45. |If you compare the same trait in people of similar heredity who live in very different environments, heritability for that trait will be ________; |

| |heritability for the trait is most likely to be ________ among people of very different heredities who live in similar environments. |

| |A) low; high B) high; low C) environmental; genetic D) genetic; environmental |

|___ 46. |Studies of adopted children and their biological and adoptive families demonstrate that with age, genetic influences on intelligence: |

|A) |become more apparent. |

|B) |become less apparent. |

|C) |become more difficult to entangle from environmental influences. |

|D) |become easier to entangle from environmental influences. |

|___ 47. |The Flynn effect refers to the fact that: |

|A) |white and black infants score equally well on measures of infant intelligence. |

|B) |Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement tests. |

|C) |The IQ scores of today's better fed and educated population exceed those of the 1930s population. |

|D) |Individual differences within a race are much greater than between-race differences. |

|___ 48. |Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of environment's role in intelligence? |

|A) |Adopted children's intelligence scores are more like their adoptive parents' scores than their biological parents'. |

|B) |Children's intelligence scores are more strongly related to their mothers' scores than to their fathers'. |

|C) |Children moved from a deprived environment into an intellectually enriched one show gains in intellectual development. |

|D) |The intelligence scores of identical twins raised separately are no more alike than those of siblings. |

|___ 49. |Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the text's position regarding the relative contribution of genes and environment in |

| |determining intelligence? |

|A) |Except in cases of a neglectful early environment, each individual's basic intelligence is largely the product of heredity. |

|B) |With the exception of those with genetic disorders such as Down syndrome, intelligence is primarily the product of environmental experiences. |

|C) |Both genes and life experiences significantly influence performance on intelligence tests. |

|D) |Because intelligence tests have such low predictive validity, the question cannot be addressed until psychologists agree on a more valid test |

| |of intelligence. |

|___ 50. |J. McVicker Hunt found that institutionalized children given “tutored human enrichment”: |

|A) |showed no change in intelligence test performance compared with institutionalized children who did not receive such enrichment. |

|B) |responded so negatively as a result of their impoverished early experiences that he felt it necessary to disband the program. |

|C) |thrived intellectually and socially on the benefits of positive caregiving. |

|D) |actually developed greater intelligence than control subjects who had lived in foster homes since birth. |

|___ 51. |First-time parents Geena and Brad want to give their baby's intelligence a jump-start by providing a super-enriched learning environment. Experts |

| |would suggest that the new parents should: |

|A) |pipe stimulating classical music into the baby's room. |

|B) |hang colorful mobiles and artwork over the baby's crib. |

|C) |take the child to one of the new “superbaby” preschools that specialize in infant enrichment. |

|D) |relax, since there is no surefire environmental recipe for giving a child a superior intellect. |

|___ 52. |Which of the following is not cited as evidence of the reciprocal relationship between schooling and intelligence? |

|A) |Neither education level nor intelligence scores accurately predict income. |

|B) |Intelligence scores tend to rise during the school year. |

|C) |High school graduates have higher intelligence scores than do those who drop out early. |

|D) |High intelligence is conducive to prolonged schooling. |

|___ 53. |Research on the effectiveness of Head Start suggests that enrichment programs: |

|A) |produce permanent gains in intelligence scores. |

|B) |improve school readiness and may provide a small boost to intelligence. |

|C) |improve intelligence scores but not school readiness. |

|D) |produce temporary gains in intelligence scores. |

|___ 54. |Most psychologists believe that racial gaps in test scores: |

|A) |have been exaggerated when they are, in fact, insignificant. |

|B) |indicate that intelligence is in large measure inherited. |

|C) |are in large measure caused by environmental factors. |

|D) |are increasing. |

|___ 55. |Hiroko's math achievement score is considerably higher than that of most American students her age. Which of the following is true regarding this |

| |difference between Asian and North American students: |

|A) |It is a recent phenomenon. |

|B) |It may be due to the fact that Asian students have a longer school year. |

|C) |It holds only for girls. |

|D) |Both a. and b. are true. |

|___ 56. |Reported racial gaps in average intelligence scores are most likely attributable to: |

|A) |the use of biased tests of intelligence. |C) |genetic factors. |

|B) |the use of unreliable tests of intelligence. |D) |environmental factors. |

|___ 57. |The contribution of environmental factors to racial gaps in intelligence scores is indicated by: |

|A) |evidence that individual differences within a race are much greater than differences between races. |

|B) |evidence that white and black infants score equally well on certain measures of infant intelligence. |

|C) |the fact that Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests. |

|D) |all of the above. |

|___ 58. |High levels of male hormones during prenatal development may enhance: |

| |A) verbal reasoning. B) spatial abilities. C) overall intelligence. D) all of the above. |

|___ 59. |Which of the following is not true? |

|A) |In math grades, the average girl typically equals or surpasses the average boy. |

|B) |The gender gap in math and science scores is increasing. |

|C) |Women are better than men at detecting emotions. |

|D) |Males score higher than females on tests of spatial abilities. |

|___ 60. |To say that the heritability of a trait is approximately 50 percent means: |

|A) |that genes are responsible for 50 percent of the trait in an individual, and the environment is responsible for the rest. |

|B) |that the trait's appearance in a person will reflect approximately equal genetic contributions from both parents. |

|C) |that of the variation in the trait within a group of people, 50 percent can be attributed to heredity. |

|D) |all of the above. |

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