1 Adult Development and Learning of Older Adults

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Adult Development and Learning of Older Adults

Donald N. Roberson, Jr., PhD.

Rivers Crossing, Adult Education

University of Georgia

Athens, GA 30605

dnrjr@uga.edu

Abstract

This summary of adult development covers a wide range of authors. Adult development

is one way of understanding how the internal and external changes in our lives have an

impact on learning. Of particular importance in this work are the developmental issues of

older adults. I present various theories of adult development such as linear and integrated.

The impact of the physical dimension of one¡¯s life is discussed. Also the writings of

several authors are presented such as Erikson, Havighurst, Peck, Fisher, Baltes and

Baltes, and Kleiber. Learning is often the result of the stage of life of the person.

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Adult Development and Learning with Older Adults

Introduction

¡°There is an appointed time for everything. And there is a time for every event

under heaven. A time to give birth, and a time to die. A time to plant, and a time to uproot

what is planted.¡± (Ecclesiastes 3: 1 ¨C 3, New American Standard Bible). From Solomon¡¯s

description of a person¡¯s time in the book of Ecclesiastes, to Shakespeare¡¯s reference to

the stages of life in ¡°As you like it¡±, people have been attempting to make sense of the

different periods of one¡¯s life. ¡°All the world¡¯s a stage, and all the men and women

merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays

many parts, his acts being seven ages.¡± (As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139) (as cited in

Erikson, 1997).

Development of the person is a lifelong process from cradle to grave with each

period or time equally important, yet inherently different. This process traces the complex

dynamics of change throughout the human life. Developmental tasks are links between

the demands of society and one¡¯s individuals needs (Havighurst, 1972). This human

metamorphous at first seems to be physical, yet beneath the surface there are complex

mental and emotional changes that comprise the life of each person (Hoyer, Rybash, &

Roodin, 1999). Solomon suggests each appointed time is equal, yet Shakespeare places

men and women on a downward spiral. ¡°Last scene of all, that ends this strange eventful

history, is second childishness and mere oblivion, sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans

everything.¡± (As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139) (as cited in Erikson, 1997).

A more modern synopsis of these changes is seen in Merriam and Caffarella¡¯s

(1999) explanation of development as sequential, life event, and integrative. Sequential

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models of development are a linear perspective, focusing on how development occurs

within the individual during their lifetime. Erikson¡¯s ego development (1950),

Havighurt¡¯s teachable moment (1972), Levinsons¡¯s self development, Loevinger¡¯s

integration, Neugarten¡¯s social clock, Perry¡¯s ethics, Kohlberg¡¯s moral development, and

Fowler¡¯s faith development offer insight to the changing nature of the internal self as one

develops and changes (as cited in Merriam & Caffarella). These stages are a series of

sequential changes within the individual across the lifetime, and these important findings

have wide spread influence and popularity (Hoyer et al. 1999). These sequential or stage

theories help to order the daily chaos in one¡¯s life, yet life event and integrative models

may be more diverse and inclusive.

Life event and transition theories have received greater attention in the last few

years. Schlossberg, Sugarman, and McClusky suggest these life events with its

accompanying transitions are significant times or benchmarks in the person¡¯s life (as

cited in Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Likewise, Gould (as cited in Schulz & Salthouse,

1999) states that major changes in one¡¯s life include specific events such as marriage or

burying one¡¯s parents and give shape and direction to the unique aspects of one¡¯s life.

Schlossberg (as cited in Merriam & Caffarella) has labeled these as anticipated,

unanticipated, non-eventful, or sleeper events that seem to spring from one¡¯s internal

clock. These life events also provide opportunities within the life cycle for learning

(Lamdin, 1997).

The integrative perspective on adult development acknowledges the intersection

of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural perspectives. This view especially

recognizes the complex and integrated role of the various dimensions on one¡¯s

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development. Looking beyond the individual to the context of one¡¯s life is considered

essential, this life-wide view of adult development is interactive and multi-causal

(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). This contextualization leads to plasticity, historical

embeddedness, and a multidirectional approach. This contextual paradigm ties the current

situation of the adult to the many layers of one¡¯s life. This somewhat dialectical view

allows for chaos and contradiction within the various dimensions of one persons¡¯ life

(Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Hoyer et al. 1999).

Physical dimension of adult development

The psychological aspects of adult development can be better understood with a

perspective on the physical dimension. Many of the changes and adaptations within the

person are the result of physical changes in the body (Peck, 1956). Piaget¡¯s work with

children attests to the normal physical development of the body and its implications,

especially cognitive response to the changing physical dimensions of the body (as cited in

Feldman, 2000). Continuing these thoughts, the European oriented ¡°Fourth Stage¡± of

development is dedicated to the stage in life when the demands of the body become preeminent (Lamdin, 1997). Also, Jarvis (2001) sets the theme of his research on redirecting

one¡¯s biography against the background of personal physical changes and one¡¯s ensuing

adaptations.

It is natural for the older adult to experience physical changes, yet perhaps the

word degenerative is too negative. Some of the stereotypes and misunderstandings of

older people are the result of confusing normal aging with actual disease (Baltes &

Baltes, 1990; DiGiovanna, 1994; Quadagno, 1999). Many of the physical changes of

older adults involve changes in the nervous system, such as sleep patterns, dulling of

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senses, lessening of secondary memory, and less problem solving ability. Yet unless one

has dementia, such as Alzheimer¡¯s, or a chronic health condition, the adult can negotiate

these problems. Research has indicated the value of training, physical exercise, mental

exercise, and social support in adjusting to these normal physical changes (Bee, 1998;

Dunn, Anderson, & Jakicic, 1998; Haskell, 1994; Haskell & Phillips, 1995).

Older adults

Gerontologists display staggering statistics that reflect an aging population across

the globe. For example, currently there are 61,000 adults that are centenarians in the

USA, yet by 2020 the predication is that there will be 214,000 (Feldman, 2000). In order

to be prepared to adapt to this graying demographic, there is a need to learn more about

the changes in older adults. Erikson (1950, 1986, 1997), Havighurst (1952), Peck (1956),

Fisher (1993), Baltes and Baltes (1990), and Kleiber (1999) will be discussed as

appropriate for understanding older adults.

Erikson.

Adult development theory acknowledges the pervasive influence of Erikson¡¯s

(1950, 1986, 1997) ideas. Erikson attempted to add to the ideas of his teacher, Anna

Freud, by showing development goes beyond psychoanalysis to include one¡¯s society and

culture (Schultz & Salthouse, 1999). The eight stages of human development summarize

a series of conflicts during the life cycle. Of particular importance to this research are the

last two stages delineated by the conflict of stagnation versus generativity and despair

versus ego integrity. The task of the former is to resolve the dilemma of concern for the

next generation, going beyond love for one¡¯s own children or grandchildren to a humble

and caring desire to generate the next generation, resulting in a goal of care. The latter

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