THE BEST OF THE BEST - Applied Sport Psych
THE BEST OF THE BEST
SIGNATURE SPORT PSYCHOLOGY TECHNIQUES THAT LINK THEORY AND PRACTICE
Third Annual Symposium – Sponsored by the Performance Psychology Committee
Association for Applied Sport Psychology Conference, Salt Lake City, UT
Wednesday, Sept. 16, 2009
Featuring the signature sport psychology techniques of the following invited speakers:
Sarah Naylor Castillo, Kate Hays, Geir Jordet, Mike Voight
Moving from the Classroom to the Playing Field:
“What’s Important Now (WIN)”
Presented by Dr. Sarah Castillo
PURPOSE
Most sport psychology consultants spend their “teaching time” either in a classroom or office setting. When we do get the opportunity to link theory to practice on the field, the techniques we use with athletes make the most impact when they have immediate effects directly related to their sport. The purpose of the “WIN” drill is to teach athletes to implement 1) focus and re-focus strategies; 2) effective thinking; and 3) short-term goal setting IN REAL TIME. Every coach/sport psych consultant talks about “letting it go,” or “next play.” This drill forces athletes to physically execute “letting it go.”
THEORY
This particular drill pulls from a number of theories, including:
Attention Control (e.g., Easterbrook, Nideffer)
Coping Strategies (e.g., Lazarus & Folkman)
Goal Setting (e.g., Locke, Latham, Burton)
Effective Thinking/Cognitive Restructuring (e.g., Ellis, Zinsser, Bunker,Williams)
Team Cohesion (e.g., Carron, Chelladurai)
TECHNIQUE
Implementing “WIN”
This drill can be applied to any sport, but requires a very active consultant with at least a cursory understanding of the rules. It’s also helpful to have a strong rapport with the team…frustration is a factor here. For the purposes of explanation, we’ll consider applying “WIN” to the sport of basketball.
Begin with a discussion of what it takes to win a game – What do athletes need to possess? What mental skills need to be implemented? What teamwork needs to occur? What has to happen when you’re losing? Any question is fair to ask them, as long as the answers you anticipate include things like “staying focused,” “keeping my emotions under control” “supporting each other”, “knowing what we have to do,” “having a good scouting report,” etc. The better you know the team, the more you’ll have examples from their team’s history to solicit the “right” answer.
Let them know they’ll be playing basketball according to the established rules. Split the team in half – let the players choose sides to make it a physically fair competition.
NOW COMES THE FRUSTRATING PART…
At EVERY change of possession (turnover, made shot, missed shot), the consultant blows the whistle. The teams MUST huddle immediately.
If a team just turned the ball over or missed a shot, they have 45sec to have a collective “oh, sh**” moment and refocus with “What’s Important Now?” Every team member MUST determine what’s important for them to do on the next play and report it OUT LOUD to their teammates in the huddle.
If a team just forced a turnover or made a shot, they have 45sec to congratulate each other and refocus with “What’s Important Now.” Every team member MUST determine what’s important for them to do on the next play and report it OUT LOUD to their teammates in the huddle.
After 45sec, the consultant blows the whistle again and play resumes according to the rules. If the change in possession occurred after a made shot, the ball is inbounded from the baseline. If it was a turnover, foul, or missed shot, play resumes from the spot the turnover occurred (e.g., under the basket, halfcourt, behind the 3pt line, etc).
This is why your rapport with the team is essential. You are slowing down a fast-paced game into something that barely resembles what they’re used to. Be prepared for rolling eyes, frustrated utterances, etc. As a consultant, you HAVE to stick with this for them to get the point. As much as you want to make it easier for them, you can’t. This is literally forcing them to move onto the next play. It’s forcing them to cope, refocus, and set a goal BEFORE they continue their performance. And it’s painful at first…
As the team improves, you’ll notice that they huddle faster, set goals more quickly, and finish their WIN task in less than 45sec. This is great! Lessen the amount of time to 30sec, then to 15sec.
Once the team is able to WIN in less than 15sec, eliminate the forced huddle and ask them to WIN in real time.
--No matter where they are on the floor, they must shout their WIN strategy BEFORE crossing halfcourt. It can be “keep my hands up!” or “stay low on defense!” but it has to be audible for the consultant and teammates.
--Be prepared to blow the whistle if athletes stop “WINning.” Once the game goes back to normal, old habits take over. Remind them that they are creating NEW habits, and it requires deliberate action over a period of time.
Breathing: Our First Mental Skill
Presented by Dr. Kate F. Hays
PURPOSE
1) To ensure that athletes (and other performers) know how to use diaphragmatic breathing, so that they can make optimal use of the oft-instructed: “Just take a deep breath”; (2) to share variations and augmentations; (3) troubleshooting and (4) applications to specific performance populations.
THEORY
Teaching athletes/students/clients how to breathe properly involves learning from and melding a number of theories, research, and practice. Among the necessary ingredients are:
--An understanding of the anatomy (form) and physiology (function) of diaphragmatic breathing for optimal respiration (oxygenation of blood) that allows for arousal regulation
--Knowledge of theories of arousal regulation that address the interaction of tension and performance. Potential relevant hypotheses/theories/practices include:
Re: optimal arousal/intensity:
the Yerkes-Dodson Principle/inverted-U theory
Hanin’s Zone of Optimal Functioning
Hardy’s cusp catastrophe model
Re: proper breathing for optimal arousal/intensity:
Kabat-Zinn’s focus on awareness/mindfulness
Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory
yoga
--Recognition of relevant information regarding:
How people change (e.g., transtheoretical model of change)
Interpersonal processes (counseling skills)
Ethics in regard to physical boundaries (e.g., Pope & Vasquez on ethics)
--Actual physical practice on oneself, with correction as necessary
TECHNIQUE
Introduce breathing to clients
Listen for mention of breathing
Inquire re tension management methods
Note where and how breathing may have been learned/taught, e.g., mental skills training, yoga or Pilates, musical training, childbirth preparation
Pre-test
Self-rating on tension (1-10)
Have client stand
Instruct to take slow, deep breaths and observe:
Middle fingers touching @ waist
One hand on belly, one on chest
De-brief
Explain observations
Add in theory and physiology as relevant
Teach
Supine
Magazine on abdomen
One hand on abdomen, other on chest
Prone if warranted
Explain horizontal to vertical transition
Normalize: e.g., “We all used to know how to breathe” “Observe baby breathing while
asleep”
Skill (re)training
Instruction re time/frequency of practice
“Let your body teach itself”
Not testing it out in “real life” too soon
Associational variations and augmentations, e.g.,
1-4 count
Triangle breathing
Square breathing
Circle, waves, clock face
Mood word
Breathing variations and augmentations, e.g.,
Inhale/exhale patterns
Nostril vs. mouth
Lengthened exhalation
Ujaii breathing
Additional focus object
Monitor stressfulness of activity
Alternate nostril breathing
Trouble-shooting
Reverse breathing
Abdomen in on inhalation; (partially) out on exhalation
Creates/enhances upper body tension
Breath pattern interferes with movement
Chest/paradoxical breathing
Males: chronic stress reaction
Females: ideal body image
Perfect set-up for hyperventilation
Hyperventilation
Partial diaphragmatic contraction -->
Reduced chest space for lung expansion -->
Increase # of breaths/minute -->
Lose too much CO2
Dizziness
Applications to Specific Performance Populations
Side or back breathing especially for:
Gymnasts
Other aesthetic sports
Dancers
[Overgeneralization alert]: Females
Soft eyes, open diaphragm
Broad external focus
REFERENCES
Calais-Germain, B. (2006). Anatomy of breathing. Vista, CA: Eastland.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper.
Farhi, D. (1996). The breathing book. New York: Henry Holt.
Hanin, Y. (2000). Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model: Emotion-performance relationships in sport. In Y. Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in sport (pp. 65-89). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Hardy, L. (1996). Testing the predictions of the cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 140-156.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delta.
Pope, K. S., & Vasquez, M. J. T. (2007). Ethics in psychotherapy and counseling: A practical guide (3rd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Prochaska, J. O., Norcross, J., & DiClemente, C. (1995). Changing for good: A revolutionary six-stage program for overcoming bad habits and moving your life positively forward.
Preventing choking under pressure
Presented by Dr. Geir Jordet
PURPOSE
My primary research interest the past few years has been on the mechanisms underlying “choking under pressure”, particularly for athletes facing extreme performance demands, such as the international soccer penalty shootout (e.g., Jordet, 2009a; Jordet, 2009b; Jordet & Hartman, 2008; Jordet et al., 2006, 2007).
THEORY
Based on a) this research, b) principles borrowed from non-sport high-reliability organizations (e.g., nuclear power plants, aircraft carriers and air traffic control) and c) sport psychology consulting experience with professional soccer teams, I have developed a system based approach for preventing choking under pressure.
With reference to research on human errors in high-reliability organizations (Reason, 2000; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007), elite sport sadly seems to endorse a “person approach” to errors. Specifically, mediated by fans, media and individually based reward systems (e.g., contracts and sponsor endorsements) we tend to treat errors almost as moral issues, where the perpetrator often is named, blamed and ultimately shamed. These prospective consequences of making mistakes can easily, particularly under extreme performance pressure, lead to avoidance motivation, fear of failure, and debilitative competitive anxiety. Rather than taking the traditional sport psychology path to dealing with these types of cognitive-emotional processes, for example addressing anxiety by use of various individual techniques (e.g., cognitive restructuring, self-talk, imagery and relaxation techniques), I believe in addressing the social-evaluative source itself of these thoughts and emotions.
TECHNIQUE
One way to do this is a “system approach” to athletic errors. Here, it is argued that people by nature are fallible; thus, individual errors are natural and to be expected. The question then is not how to “avoid errors at any cost” (as this likely would trigger fear of failure), rather how can the system, team, culture and communication be organized such that the consequences of individual errors can be adequately and constructively dealt with?
Specifically, in this symposium, I demonstrate how addressing scenarios that athletes often fear (e.g., making crucial mistakes) in a proactive, non-punitive and team-based way is a first step towards athletes accepting the existence of both errors and those potentially debilitative emotions that naturally arise when thinking about them. This is expected not only to make it less likely that errors carry disastrous consequences, it would also decrease the experience of performance pressure, which would make it less likely that errors occur. This is accomplished through a series of steps.
First, one needs to show that mistakes are natural; they happen when the pressure is highest, and many of the most esteemed athletes make the most/worst mistakes. This needs to be understood in the group and communicated within the group.
Second, it is important to address possible constructive responses to mistakes, both individually and collectively. Collectively, the question is what the group can do to minimize the negative consequences of mistakes, what types of “safety nets” exist for “covering up” when errors occur in competition, and how does the group take care of the individual who made the mistake? A part of this is to create a social support plan, such that individuals who make mistakes are brought back into the group as quickly as possible. Note that active social support strategies will have a positive stress buffering effect not only on those in the receiving end, but also on those providing support (Brown et al., 2003).
Finally, the team has to simulate performing under pressure, and practice steps to take once errors have been made.
REFERENCES
Brown, S.L., Nesse, R.M., Vinokur, A.D., & Smith, D.M. (2003). Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it: Results From a Prospective Study of Mortality. Psychological Science, 14, 320-327.
Jordet, G. (2009a). When superstars flop: Public status and “choking under pressure” in international soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 125-130.
Jordet, G. (2009b). Why do English players fail in soccer penalty shootouts? A study of team status, self-regulation, and choking under pressure. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 97-106.
Jordet, G., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Lemmink, K.A.P.M., & Visscher, C. (2006). The “Russian roulette” of soccer? Perceived control and anxiety in a major tournament penalty shootout. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 37, 281-298.
Jordet, G., & Hartman, E. (2008). Avoidance motivation and choking under pressure in soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 452-459.
Jordet, G., Hartman, E., Visscher, C., & Lemmink, K.A.P.M. (2007). Kicks from the penalty mark in soccer: The roles of stress, skill, and fatigue for kick outcomes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 121-129.
Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. British Medical Journal, 320, 768-770.
Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2007). Managing the unexpected: Resilient Performance in an age of uncertainty. San Fransisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Leadership Development for Collegiate
Team Captains & Apprentices
Presented by Dr. Mike Voight
PURPOSE
To enhance leadership strengths and teach leadership strategies to team captains and aspiring ones who are thrust into leadership roles usually without guidance or formalized instruction. Through this educationally-based technique, captains learn about their own leadership strengths & deficiencies through assessment, self reflection, feedback from teammates and coaches, and problem-solving experiences/round table discussions while “on the pitch, field, court, or deck training.”
THEORY
The theoretical foundation for my approach to leadership training involves the Strengths-Based Psychology-Leadership approach by Dr. Don Clifton/Gallop International, and the Leadership Styles Approach to Leadership by Daniel Goleman, leadership consultant.
Due to his pioneering research studying leadership strengths for over four decades, the American Psychological Association honored Dr. Don Clifton in 2002 with a Presidential Commendation as the Father of Strengths-Based Psychology. This work entails learning from great leaders from all walks of life in terms of “.. calling on the right strength at the right time, much like a carpenter knows his tools or as a physician knows the instruments at her disposal.” (Rath & Conchie, 2008).
Daniel Goleman’s leadership styles approach (2000) encompasses using a “..collection of distinct leadership styles, each in the right measure, at just the right time-such flexibility is tough to put into action, but it pays off in performance, and better yet, it can be learned” (p. 79).” Goleman’s leadership styles are: coercive, authoritative, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching.
TECHNIQUE
Leadership Development Training Stages:
(1) Assessment of the individual leaders (self-perception, coach and team assessments)
(2) Assessing the team dynamics and primary leadership needs (captains, team,coaching staff)
(3) Awareness/Application: the sharing of the assessment summaries and feedback (numbers 1 and 2 above)
(4) Matching leader skill sets to team needs
(5) Assigning leader responsibilities specific to the team needs
(6) Education: The “How-To” best accomplish your responsibilities (improving skill sets)
(7) Practice: Practice dealing with “captain moments” via role play and round Table discussions
(8) Actual Problem-Solving as they occur during the season
9) Follow-ups and Check-ins: visits, skypes, phone, email
(10) Evaluation during season (captain, coaches, team feedback) and postseason debriefing
REFERENCES
Clifton, D.O. & Anderson, E. (2002). StrengthsQuest: Discover and develop your strengths in academics, career, & beyond. New York: Gallup Press.
Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that Gets Results. Harvard Business Review: On Point. 79-90.
Hodges, T.D., & Clifton, D.O. (2004). Strengths-based development in practice. In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 256-268). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Rath, T. & Conchie, B. (2008). Strengths based leadership: Great leaders, teams, & why people follow. New York, NY: Gallup Press.
Welch, J. & Welch, S. (2005). Winning. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Williams, P. (2005). Coaching your kids to be leaders. New York: Faith Words.
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