The Reversal of Gender Inequalities in Higher Education ...

[Pages:34]ISBN 978-92-64-04065-6 Higher Education to 2030 Volume 1: Demography ? OECD 2008

Chapter 10

The Reversal of Gender Inequalities in Higher Education: An On-going Trend

by St?phan Vincent-Lancrin*

This chapter analyses gender inequalities in participation in higher education and degree awards in OECD member countries. After documenting these inequalities, in both quantitative and qualitative terms, and presenting the main possible explanations for their reversal, we show that this new trend is more than likely to persist in coming decades. While it should probably continue to help reduce the wage inequalities which disadvantage women, its other possible social consequences have yet to be studied. However, in terms of educational inequalities, it would seem that in promoting equal opportunities for men and women the focus can no longer be solely on women.

* OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI). The author is grateful to Francesca Borgonovi, Tom Schuller and William Thorn for their helpful comments.

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

For many years men have received a better education than women. In OECD member

countries, more men than women went on to higher education and obtained more degrees. Since the mid-1990s, however, the gender gap has mainly been to the disadvantage of men. To the extent that girls and boys share the same homes and the same social environments, it might be thought that greater egalitarianism between the sexes would have led to educational equality of the sexes rather than to inequalities to the detriment of men. Is this reversal of gender inequalities a temporary or permanent phenomenon? Will its social consequences be as great as the impact that gender inequalities had on women? These are the two questions that this chapter proposes to explore. The first section analyses the gender differences in participation in higher education and degree awards in OECD member countries and extrapolates these differences to 2025. It also underlines the marked gender differences in choice of study options. The second section outlines the main explanations for the reversal of gender inequalities, while the third and final section discusses whether they will last and their potential social implications.

10.1. Gender inequalities in higher education: international trends

International trends in gender inequalities in higher education can be determined by examining the changes in the composition of the student population in higher education, the relative share of degrees awarded to women each year, the levels of education attained by men and women and, lastly, the differences between the subjects studied by men and women.

Participation in higher education: trends in the gender gap

Until the 1990s, there were on average more male than female students in OECD member countries. Women were disadvantaged by inequalities in access to higher education. Since then, inequalities to the detriment of men have emerged in almost all countries. Table 10.1 shows that women accounted for 46% of students in higher education in 1985 (1.2 men for every woman). However, the faster increase in female participation in higher education has reversed the trend in OECD member countries (but not in most of the rest of the world). Of the 18 countries for which data were available in 1985 and 2005, women students were in the majority in 5 countries in 1985 compared with 16 in 2005. In 2005, the average share of the student population accounted for by women amounted to 55% in the OECD area (1.2 women to every man) (Figure 10.1). If past trends were to continue, the inequalities to the detriment of men would be well entrenched at the aggregate level in 2025, with some 1.4 female students for every male. In some countries (Austria, Canada, Iceland, Norway, the United Kingdom) there could be almost twice as many female students as male. A linear projection of recent trends shows that only four countries would fail to achieve at least parity between men and women by 2015: Korea, Turkey, Japan and Switzerland (even though the last two would be very close, with a female student population of 47% and 49% respectively in 2015). The probability ratios of women and men entering into higher education are rising in all countries, indicating a narrowing

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

Table 10.1. Percentage of women students in higher education: past twenty years and projections

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2015

2020

2025

Australia

m

m

50

54

54

55

55

56

Austria

44

45

48

51

54

61

66

72

Belgium

47

49

49

52

54

58

59

60

Canada

49

54

53

56

58

60

62

64

Czech Republic

m

m

48

50

53

53

54

54

Denmark

48

50

52

57

57

59

59

60

Finland

49

52

53

54

54

54

53

53

France

52

53

55

54

55

56

57

57

Germany

m

m

43

48

50

54

56

58

Greece

m

m

49

50

51

53

53

53

Hungary

m

m

52

54

58

59

60

60

Iceland

m

m

58

62

65

67

67

68

Ireland

43

45

49

54

55

58

58

59

Italy

45

48

52

56

57

57

57

57

Japan

m

41

44

45

46

47

47

48

Korea

m

m

35

36

37

38

39

40

Luxembourg

m

m

m

m

m

M

m

m

Mexico

m

m

47

49

50

52

52

52

Netherlands

41

44

47

50

51

53

54

54

New Zealand

46

52

55

59

59

59

60

60

Norway

50

53

55

58

60

63

64

65

Poland

m

m

m

58

58

58

58

58

Portugal

53

m

57

57

56

56

56

56

Slovak Republic

m

m

m

50

55

58

59

59

Spain

48

51

53

53

54

55

55

55

Sweden

52

53

55

58

60

62

63

63

Switzerland

32

34

37

43

46

49

51

52

Turkey

31

34

38

40

42

43

43

43

United Kingdom

45

48

51

54

57

65

68

71

United States

52

54

55

56

57

60

61

62

Average

46

48

50

52

54

56

57

58

Comparable average

46

48

51

53

55

57

58

59

m = missing. Note: The gross enrolment rates by gender were derived by linear regression from the changes between 1998 and 2005 and applied to the corresponding age cohorts according to UN projections.

of the gender gap in the four countries mentioned above and a widening of the gender gap to the detriment of men in all the others. However, this strengthening of inequalities is primarily attributable to stronger growth in female participation compared with that of males. With the exception of Austria, Canada and the United Kingdom, where male participation (measured in terms of gross enrolment rates) has fallen slightly over the last decade, the number of men entering into higher education continues to grow. Thus a young man still has more chance of receiving higher education in 2005 than in previous decades and, if recent trends continue, he will have a greater chance of entering into higher education in 2025 than he did in 2005.

To the extent that, in some countries, more women resume their studies or follow vocational rather than general higher education programmes, it is possible that these averages conceal trends less favourable to women within the system.

HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 ? VOLUME 1: DEMOGRAPHY ? ISBN 978-92-64-04065-6 ? ? OECD 2008

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

Figure 10.1. Share of females in tertiary education enrolments (1995, 2005 and projections)

2005 80.0

1995

2025

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 KoreaTurkeyJapanMSewxiictzoerlandFinlaCnzdGecreheRceeNpuebthliecrlands SpaAiunstraPlioartugaFl rance ItGaleyrmCoanuynPtorlyanadverSagloeIvraeklaRndepublBicelgiuDmenmaHrkuNnegwarZUyenailtaenddStateSswedeCnanadNaorUwnaiIytceedlaKnidngdomAustria

Does the trend reflect age-related participation models?

The international data do not permit analysis by age cohort. Nevertheless, data on the sex and age of students over the past decade are available for a great many countries. In the OECD area, women were on average in the majority or at parity with men in all the age cohorts for which data were collected in 2005.1 In one OECD country, for example, 54% of students under the age of 24 years were women. In most OECD member countries, the share of women in the youngest student population is either close to or above the average share, except in Iceland (59% of women among students under 24), New Zealand (55%), Sweden (56%) and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom (54%) and the United States (55%). Between 1998 and 2005, the share of women increased in all age groups for which data were collected. For students aged over 40, the 23 OECD member countries for which information was available had, on average, a similar proportion of women in 1998 and 2005 (52% and 54% respectively). On the other hand, the typical gender gap across countries is three times greater for students over 40 than it is for other age groups. In 2005, the percentage share of students over 40 accounted for by women exceeded the percentage share of women in the under-24 population by 10% or more in some countries (Hungary, Iceland, New Zealand, Norway, the Slovak Republic, Sweden, the United Kingdom, while the reverse was true in Turkey). However, insofar as students over 40 represent on average only 8% of the student population in OECD countries, compared with 61% of the under 24 population, the sex of the older students has little impact on the overall gender composition of student populations.

Are there significant differences according to the type of higher education followed by men and women?

The international data do not allow an in-depth response to this question firstly because the historical series pre-1998 are not sufficiently detailed, and secondly because the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) does not distinguish between types of institutions but rather between types of education: general higher

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

education (ISCED 5) can therefore be provided by different types of institution in terms of status and perception at national level. In Japan, junior colleges (tanki daigaku) are institutions where women students are very much in the majority, while men still remain in the majority in the universities. In the Netherlands, women far outnumber men in the HBOs (higher vocational colleges) while men are more numerous in the universities. In the United States, the share of women in community colleges is higher than in universities, even if women are also over-represented in the elite universities, which in some cases have introduced admission criteria that favour men (Long, 2007; Bailey and Smith-Morest, 2006). In Israel, women are relatively more numerous in colleges than in universities, where they are also in the majority, among other things because colleges train students for teaching, which is an essentially female profession (Shavit et al., 2007). However, this trend is by no means systematic: in Germany, the Fachhochschulen admit a majority of men, which is no longer the case of the universities whose status is more prestigious (BMBF, 2005).

The international data do, however, allow the composition of the student population to be broken down by type of higher education since 1998. In 2005, there was virtually no difference in the gender composition of the student population in technical higher education (ISCED 5B) and that in general higher education (ISCED 5A), although there were slightly more women in higher technical education than general higher education.2 Table 10.2 shows that between 1998 and 2005 the two sectors converged: the percentage of women in general higher education increased and declined in higher technical education. It should be noted, however, that the averages hide a greater difference across countries for vocational higher education than for the other two levels. In Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom, the share of women in vocational higher education is over 10% higher than in general higher education, the reverse being true in Denmark. (Poland, Finland, Iceland and Sweden also have contrasting models, but technical higher education is not quantitatively significant in those countries.)

The situation remains slightly different for doctoral students since at this level (ISCED 6) the average share of the student population accounted for by women in one OECD country amounted to 45%, while in 7 of the 28 countries women were in the majority. A catching-up effect is nonetheless visible, even over a relatively short period of time (Table 10.2 and Figure 10.2). In the 24 countries for which data were available in 1998 and 2005, a rise of 7% and an average share of 46% can be observed (the weighted average for the OECD area being 47% or 1.1 men for every woman). The trend is therefore no different at this level, even if the catching-up has been slower. The same situation can sometimes be observed in the most elitist higher education institutions. In France, women are still in the minority in the Grandes Ecoles d'Ing?nierie (Engineering Schools) but not in the Grandes Ecoles de Commerce (Business Schools). Moreover, some of these schools did not admit women until the 1970s (Givord and Goux, 2007). Even though a PhD can provide access to certain prestigious professions, students enrolled at this level in one OECD country accounted on average to only 3% of the student population in 2005 (and 2% of all students enrolled in the OECD area).

Conclusion

The last few decades have been marked by greater growth in the participation of women than men in higher education, which initially led to a reduction in gender inequalities and their subsequent reversal. On average there are more women than men,

HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 ? VOLUME 1: DEMOGRAPHY ? ISBN 978-92-64-04065-6 ? ? OECD 2008

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

Table 10.2. Percentage share of women in the different sectors of higher education and size of sector (1998, 2005)

1998

2005

Theoretical higher (ISCED 5A)

Practical higher (ISCED 5B)

Advanced research Theoretical higher

(ISCED 6)

(ISCED 5A)

Practical higher (ISCED 5B)

Advanced research (ISCED 6)

% total % women % total % women % total % women % total % women % total % women % total % women

students

students

students

students

students

students

Australia Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States

72

55

26

52

81

49

10

61

m

m

m

m

72

57

26

52

72

46

22

61

54

50

43

63

77

52

16

63

72

56

24

53

85

44

15

63

71

51

28

49

98

54

m

m

82

60

18

59

m

m

m

m

98

55

2

56

69

36

29

67

59

35

40

36

24

50

76

52

94

48

x

x

99

49

1

53

72

57

26

62

91

58

7

48

97

57

1

84

77

57

22

54

m

m

m

m

91

53

5

49

94

57

x

x

68

42

24

40

71

37

27

45

66

52

30

56

77

56

21

56

Country average

77

51

22

56

Comparable average (24) 77

51

20

56

OECD

77

51

20

54

3

44

80

55

16

53

9

40

83

53

10

68

m

m

46

51

52

58

2

43

97

58

m

m

6

32

83

52

10

68

2

40

84

59

14

47

7

45

93

54

0

32

5

47

72

55

24

56

m

m

85

48

15

60

1

35

61

53

35

49

2

40

93

58

5

64

0

36

95

66

4

49

m

m

67

58

30

49

1

52

97

57

1

60

1

22

74

41

24

62

1

23

61

37

38

37

a

a

m

m

m

m

6

42

96

51

3

42

n

m

99

51

a

a

2

44

73

59

25

58

2

34

97

60

1

57

1

42

97

57

1

81

1

49

94

56

1

56

m

m

92

56

3

64

4

50

82

54

14

51

6

40

91

61

4

50

8

33

73

48

18

41

1

35

69

43

29

39

4

39

73

55

23

66

2

42

77

57

21

60

3

40

82

54

16

55

3

39

82

53

16

54

2

41

79

53

19

55

4

50

6

45

2

40

3

46

7

37

2

45

7

51

4

48

m

m

3

43

2

45

1

59

3

48

2

51

2

29

1

33

m

m

1

40

1

m

2

52

2

43

2

48

5

56

6

41

4

51

5

48

8

39

1

40

4

44

2

51

3

45

3

46

2

47

m = missing; x = included in another column; a = not applicable; n = negligible.

irrespective of age, in both general higher education and higher technical education in OECD member countries. It is only at the doctoral level that men remain, on average, in the majority, although women are visibly catching up and parity has almost been achieved.

Degree awards: trends in gender inequalities Is the higher propensity of women to study reflected in a higher propensity to obtain

degrees in higher education? The answer is yes. The trends in this area are the same. During the last decade, the gap in favour of women in the award of degrees widened. As shown in Table 10.3 and Figure 10.3, it is wider than the gap in participation (Table 10.1). In 2005, OECD countries awarded 57% of their degrees on average to women (1.3 female graduates for each

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

Figure 10.2. Share of female students in advanced research programmes (ISCED 6) (1998, 2005)

2005

1998

60

50

45

40

30

20

10

0 JapaCnzeKcohrReaepSuwbilticzerlandTurkeyMexSiclBooevlagkiuRmepNuebthliecrlandsNorwUanyiGterdeeKciengdoHmungaAryverageAustDrieanmarCkanadaIrelandFrancSewedenPolaAnudstraliaFinland ItalyUSnpitaeidnNSetawteZsealanPdortugaIlceland

Table 10.3. Percentage of women graduates in 1998, 2005 and projections

1998

2005

2015

2020

2025

Australia

57

56

62

62

62

Austria

46

52

62

60

57

Belgium

m

58

67

67

66

Canada

57

59

m

m

m

Czech Republic

50

57

55

61

66

Denmark

m

59

66

68

67

Finland

61

62

65

63

60

France

55

56

65

66

66

Germany

48

53

65

61

55

Greece

m

61

m

m

m

Hungary

57

64

66

73

77

Iceland

57

68

74

74

75

Ireland

52

56

59

59

62

Italy

57

59

68

70

70

Japan

50

49

49

54

55

Korea

47

49

54

56

57

Luxembourg

58

m

m

m

m

Mexico

55

55

46

51

55

Netherlands

51

56

70

70

68

New Zealand

60

61

74

74

76

Norway

61

62

65

65

63

Poland

53

66

63

62

65

Portugal

m

65

m

m

m

Slovak Republic

m

57

54

55

59

Spain

58

58

64

68

70

Sweden

59

63

74

76

76

Switzerland

40

43

49

48

44

Turkey

44

44

35

37

39

United Kingdom

53

58

72

72

71

United States

56

58

61

57

56

Country average

54

57

62

63

63

Comparable average

54

57

63

64

63

m = missing Note: The projections are based on a linear regression of rates of award of degrees by gender observed between 1998 and 2005, then applied to the UN population projections by gender.

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10. THE REVERSAL OF GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ON-GOING TREND

Figure 10.3. Percentage of women graduates in 1998, 2005 and projections

2005 80

1998

2025

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 TSuwrkietzyerlaGnedrmanyJapaUMnneitxeicdoStateAsusStlroiavKakorReeapubliFcinlaAnudstraliIarelanNdorwAavyeragePolaCnBzdeeclghiuRmepublicFranDceenNmetahrekrlands UItnaliyteSdpKaiinngdomINceelwanZdealanSdwedHenungarCyanadGaLurexeecmebouProgrtugal

male graduate). If recent trends were to be maintained, the percentage could reach 63% by 2025 (1.8 female graduates for each male graduate). Here too, the widening of the gap between men and women does not reflect a decline in the number of degrees awarded to men so much as the higher rate of growth in the percentage of women graduates.

Studying levels of education in the population by gender allows this question to be viewed in terms of generations. On average (not weighted), the male and female populations aged from 25 to 64 years have the same level of education. OECD countries had an average of 26% of men and women graduates (on average 8% type B or vocational degrees and 19% type A or general).

Table 10.4 and Figure 10.4 show that there are nonetheless differences between countries and types of higher education. In 2005, the female population aged 25 to 64 years had a higher level of education in 16 OECD countries, the reverse being true in 12 others. However, the weight of the oldest cohorts weighs heavily on the analysis: women outnumber men in 25 out of 30 countries in the 24-35 year-old age bracket, and in only two in the 55-64 year-old bracket (2 other countries have parity). Men born between 1941 and 1960 are therefore, on average, better educated than women of their age, the reverse being true for subsequent age groups. The reversal of gender inequalities occurred later in general higher education and can be seen only in the youngest age group (whereas there was parity for the age cohort in vocational higher education). While the numerical superiority of women is still primarily on higher technical diplomas (type B), that is no longer the case for the youngest students, among whom the gender gap is more marked in general education than in technical education. For the age group born between 1971 and 1980, the gap between the proportion of women and men graduates is 6% on average. In terms of growth, women have gained 12 points compared with men between the oldest and the youngest age groups, i.e. in thirty years. While their advance will probably start to slow (otherwise there would be an 18-point gap between men and women in the lower age groups in 30 years time), the difference between the rates of men and women graduating could well exceed 10% on average between now and 2025.

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