How to Write a Scientific Paper - Mrs. Rosewitz
How to Write a Scientific PaperMany students new to scientific/technical writing may find it confusing. It differs in many ways from the type of writing you see in non-science based classes such as English and History. This type of technical writing is the most efficient and effective way to communicate important scientific findings and discoveries to a very broad audience. Since the format does not change, scientists from any part of the world can read a paper without having to decipher the writing methodology used. In other words, you will not find any metaphors, allegories or sonnets in a science paper. Science is being conducted all over the world but every study would be worthless if the results are not communicated to the broader scientific community. Writing is the primary method of communication between scientists and every year millions of pages of scientific papers are published. In an effort to allow for the most papers to be published, scientific writing does not include anything unnecessary. In other words, say only what you need to say in as few words as possible (without sacrificing proper grammar). Your research paper must include the following sections:TitleAbstract (write this section last)IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLiterature Cited.General Formatting 1” margins10-point font writing in Times New Roman or Calibri. All sections with the exception of the title and abstract should be in two columns. We will review formatting as a class. The entire paper should be written in past tenseYou must include the scientific name in italics for all species (other than humans)Section Headings:Use 10 point font size. Do not increase or decrease the font size for emphasis. Section titles should be centered and double spaced from the lines above and below the title. Section titles should be completely capitalized and bolded. DO NOT underline or use italics. Formatting ExampleABSTRACTScientists know that lab reports are a very important part of every experiment. The purpose of an experiment is to answer a question by testing a hypothesis. During an experiment you may collect a lot of information, or data. But that data is not very useful unless it is organized. The purpose of a lab report is to organize and communicate what you did in your experiment. A good lab report explains exactly what you have done. It can be used to repeat the experiment or to test other hypotheses in new experiments.INTRODUCTIONThe domestic cat[1][2] (Felis catus HYPERLINK "" \l "cite_note-ITIS_F.c.-2" [2] or Felis silvestris catus HYPERLINK "" \l "cite_note-Driscoll-4" [4]) is a small, usually furry, domesticated, and carnivorous mammal. They are often called a housecat when kept as an indoor pet, HYPERLINK "" \l "cite_note-AHD-6" [6] or simply a cat when there is no need to distinguish them from other felids and felines. Cats are often valued by humans for companionship, and their ability to hunt vermin and household pests. Cats are similar in anatomy to the other felids, with strong, flexible bodies, quick reflexes, sharp retractable claws, and teeth adapted to killing small prey. Cat senses fit a crepuscular and predatory ecological niche. Cats can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by mice and other small animals. They can see in near darkness. Like most other mammals, cats have poorer color vision and a better sense of smell than humans.Despite being solitary hunters, cats are a social species, and cat communication includes the use of a variety of vocalizations (mewing, purring, trilling, hissing, growling, and grunting), as well as cat pheromones, and types of cat-specific body language TitleThe goal of every title is to completely describe the content of the paper in only a few words. It should not include any superfluous (unnecessary) information, but should still be very descriptive of the paper’s contents. Remember, this is scientific writing and should not include any “cute” or “imaginative” words/phrases. The title is a statement and should never be phrased as a question.133350103505The title should always include the independent and dependent variables of the study.An easy format to use would be:The effect of __(independent variable)__ on __(dependent variable)__.0The title should always include the independent and dependent variables of the study.An easy format to use would be:The effect of __(independent variable)__ on __(dependent variable)__.** If there is any other important information about the study (location, species, etc.) include it. Remember to use proper formatting for the scientific names of species: the words should be italicized and the genus should be capitalized. If you are working with humans you do not need to include the scientific name (Homo sapiens). Let us review some sample titles for problems. If the titles are sufficient, we can leave them be.Study: scientists added cobalt to firework powder in an attempt to see if the blue color would be brighter.Suggested title: Boom, Boom, Pow – Fireworks!Is this title sufficient? If not, provide an appropriate title for the study in the space below. Study: a researcher attempts to determine if adding nitrogen to his tomato plants will cause an increase in fruit production.Suggested title: Nitrogen and PlantsIs this title sufficient? If not, provide an appropriate title for the study in the space below.Study: a researcher attempts to discover the effects of peppermint extract on ant behavior. Suggested title: The effects of peppermint extract on ant behavior.Is this title sufficient? If not, provide an appropriate title for the study in the space below.Study: a researcher attempts to determine the effects of different solutes on plant life.Suggested title: Does salt or sugar water affect plant life?Is this title sufficient? If not, provide an appropriate title for the study in the space below. Study: a researcher attempts to determine the correlation between deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) population density and Hantavirus infection rates.Suggested title: The increase of Hantavirus infection rates in areas of deer mouse population growth.Is this title sufficient? If not, provide an appropriate title for the study in the space below. AbstractThe abstract is the first section after the title of your paper; however, it is the last section you actually write. The goal of the abstract is to provide a complete, yet succinct (to the point) summary of the entire paper. You should include a one to two sentence summary of the following sections of your paper: The introduction (make sure you include the hypothesis and purpose of the study) The materials and MethodsResults (include any trends or averages you found) Discussion (make sure include a BREIF interpretation of the data and the conclusion) Once your abstract is completed, ask yourself, if this is the only part my teacher read, would I be happy with the information I presented to him/her? The abstract is limited to 200-250 words. The abstract should NOT include:Too much background informationReferences to another paperIncomplete sentences, abbreviations, data tables, graphs, rmation not actually found in the body of the paper. Let us review some sample abstracts. Highlight the portions of the abstract that need to be altered. 1. Does a lack of sleep have an affect on a person’s motor skills? The purpose of this study is to see how a lack of sleep affects driving ability. This study was conducted using two groups of ten people: the control group received a full night’s sleep while the experimental group only received 3 hours of sleep. We then had each of the participants use a driving simulator and attempt to drive around a course a number of times. We counted the number of times the driver went off the road and other errors. We found the group that was allowed to sleep for a full night had fewer errors than the other group (figure 1). Based on the data collected we believe sleeping longer hours will increase motor ability in humans. 2. The experiment was to measure the effects of beta-carotene (a nutrient commonly found in carrots) on the growth of sunflowers infected with the crown gall plant disease. It was expected that since crown gall impairs the plant’s ability to take in nutrients, the more nutrients provided, the more of a chance that some will be absorbed.? Five groups of four plants each with relatively consistent heights were inoculated with Agrobacterium tumefaciens (crown gall). Twice a week for two and a half weeks, each group was watered with different amounts of beta-carotene, from 0 to 8,200 mg. The plants were measured twice a week until the end of the testing period.? The group of sunflowers with the highest dosage of beta-carotene had the highest survival rate, while the group with no beta-carotene survived the least.? The conclusion is that the more beta-carotene an infected plant receives (up until a point undetermined by this experiment), the taller and healthier it becomes.3. Previous studies have shown controlling deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) populations have been effective in controlling Hantavirus outbreaks. This study examined the population density of deer mice in Azusa canyon and reports of Hantavirus infections in the local area. We hypothesized the incidence of Hantavirus infection would positively correlate with deer mouse population density. Quadrants were set up in random locations throughout Azusa Canyon to determine deer mouse population density and compared with confirmed diagnosis of Hantavirus. Reported cases of Hantavirus occurred on average 2.4x more often in areas with a population density above 30 mice/km2. Based on the data collected, we posit controlling deer mouse populations lowers the incidence of Hantavirus infections and could possibly reduce human casualties from the disease. IntroductionThe introduction of your paper must include the following: background information (from previous studies and the research you conducted on your topic)the purpose/objective of the studythe hypothesis. To make sure your introduction is complete, ask yourself these important questions when writing your introduction: What was I studying? Why was it an important question? What did we know about it before I did this study? How will this study advance our knowledge?*** You must have a total of six sources (at least two must come from previous research that has been done on your topic), for the remaining sources that provide you with general background information. Ex. Websites, magazines, books, etc. *** You may not use the following sites: yahoo answers, wisegeek, askjeeves or any other open forum based sites. Background InformationThis section provides your reader with enough background information to understand your study and should include the following:Background information should be focused on providing the reader with context about your study. You must include information that is not considered common knowledge about your subject. You need to include data/information from previous studies that have been done on your subjectDo not include repetitive or unnecessary information.Ask yourself, “Will this information make my topic easier for the reader to understand?Information that should be included: (Using our deer mouse example)Deer mouse habitatClarify what the Hantavirus isIdentify the primary host of Hantavirus and how it spreadsAny previous studies that have been conducted on the density of deer mouse populations and infection rates. Some information you should NOT include in the background:Deer mouse mating habitsHantavirus symptomsEvolutionary history of the deer mouse & HantavirusComparisons to other similar types of infectionsComparisons to other species of micePurposeAt the start of this section you will succinctly (briefly) identify the area of research for your reader. Do not start this section by saying, “The purpose of this study…”.Start the section using keys words from the title Purpose Example: Controlling deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) populations have been effective in controlling Hantavirus outbreaks.With a partner, use a computer to gather appropriate background information for the deer mouse and Hanta virus study. Take notes on the research you gather in the space below. Attach additional sheets of paper if necessary. Formation of the HypothesisYour hypothesis must include both the independent and dependent variable. It should be written as a statement, NOT a question. It should not include the words: “I feel”, “I think”, “I believe” or “We hypothesize”. Instead try using a phrase like “We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the…”.Your hypothesis should be based on information gathered from your research. If you plan to “go against” the current research, you must have a good explanation of why you believe the consensus from the scientific community is incorrect. While this may not be based on prior research (as it may not have been completed yet), include some background information about the topic that you believe specifically contradicts the research. This should not be the case for the vast majority of your papers in this class. Hypothesis Example: The majority of the research from our deer mouse study indicates infection rates of Hantavirus go up with increased population density of deer mice; your hypothesis should be similar. Time to Practice : )Examine the sample hypotheses below and choose the best one to use for our deer mouse and Hantavirus study.1. We feel the more mice there are in an area, the more disease you will find. 2. The more mice in an area, the more disease you will find. 3. When there is more grass in an area, you get more mice and therefore more disease.4. The incidence of Hantavirus infection positively correlates with deer mouse population density.5. Hantavirus infection rates will increase when deer mice enter the mating season.6. Hantavirus infection rates will decrease when more mousetraps are present. Using the space below, write an introduction to the deer mouse and Hantavirus study. Make sure you include all three parts to the introduction: purpose, background information and hypothesis. Materials and MethodsThe goal of this section is to provide the reader with a detailed account of how the study was conducted. It should be detailed enough so another scientist can replicate the study exactly the way you conducted it. This section should be written in paragraph form. Do not use the list the steps in numerical order. You must include the following: The organisms you studied (If applicable) Include information about how the organism is cared for. (E.x. how often is the plant watered? How much water does the plant need?, How much sunlight should the plant be exposed to?, etc.) A detailed description of how you conducted the experiment. This should include: The control(s) Experimental groupsYour independent and dependent variablesThe number of samples you collected and the total number of replications.A description of how your data was collected.A description of how your data was analyzed. The following are examples of problematic sections of a Methods section and their revised counterparts. 1905069215Example 1 (Problematic): A petri dish was taken out of the cabinet and placed on a desk. The lip of the petri dish was raised slightly as to avoid unwanted contamination. We heated our inoculating loupe so all-previous bacteria would be killed. Next, we used our sterilized loupe to collect bacteria off of our Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius) and transferred it over to our petri dish. We made sure to move the loupe back and forth in three separate quadrants of the dish. Finally, we stored the plates in an incubator.Example 1 (Improved): Each plate was streaked with collected samples (using standard sterilization techniques) from the geckos and incubated a total of 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius.0Example 1 (Problematic): A petri dish was taken out of the cabinet and placed on a desk. The lip of the petri dish was raised slightly as to avoid unwanted contamination. We heated our inoculating loupe so all-previous bacteria would be killed. Next, we used our sterilized loupe to collect bacteria off of our Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius) and transferred it over to our petri dish. We made sure to move the loupe back and forth in three separate quadrants of the dish. Finally, we stored the plates in an incubator.Example 1 (Improved): Each plate was streaked with collected samples (using standard sterilization techniques) from the geckos and incubated a total of 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius.1905038100Example 2 (Problematic): NaCl was added to test tubes 1, 2 and 3.Example 2 (Improved): 3% NaCl solution was added to test tubes with 10, 20 and 30 mL of water.0Example 2 (Problematic): NaCl was added to test tubes 1, 2 and 3.Example 2 (Improved): 3% NaCl solution was added to test tubes with 10, 20 and 30 mL of water. Using the space below, write a Material and Methods section for the deer mouse and Hantavirus study. Below is a brief explanation of how the study was conducted. To conduct the deer mouse study we used quadrants (dividing an area into rectangles) and set up mousetraps with oatmeal and peanut butter to catch mice. We used a catch and release method of determining population density. Urine samples were collected from the mice before releasing them. Medical records from local hospitals were used to confirm patients diagnosed with Hantavirus. Data was analyzed using a correlation test. ResultsThis section is meant to present your most important key findings for the reader without interpreting those key findings.In this section you must do the following:Start the section with text. Do not start with a data table or graphPresent your data and key findings in logical order. Include a graph/graphs of your results All numerical data must include unitsAll graphs MUST have captions (see the example of the graph below)Text and figures should coincide with each other in the order you discuss them. Meaning if you discuss graph one in the first paragraph, then you insert graph one below that paragraph.Include any important negative results found in your study (this does not necessarily indicate you did a bad job)Do not include the following:Raw data (instead summarize the data statistically using means, percent, etc.) A data table and graph of the same data (include either the data table or the graph)A description of every piece of data represented in your data tables or figuresInterpretation of the dataExample 1 (Below are two examples of how to report the data you collected. Notice that the graph that represents that data being discussed is placed below the paragraph which discusses the data)(Problematic): The average running speed of our two test groups differed by approximately 10 meters/min, which indicates longer rest periods between runs is beneficial. (Improved): The average running speed of our two test groups differed by approximately 10 meters/min.3981450833755001790700576580All graphs must include captions in this format0All graphs must include captions in this formatFigure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1. This graph shows the correlation between the number of years of experience and the total yearly income of study participants.Example 2(Problematic): There is a positive correlation between the amount of experience a person has and his/her total income. Since experience often makes you more valuable to a company, it would make sense his/her income would increase.(Improved): There is a positive correlation between the amount of experience a person has and his/her total income. An increase of 30 years of experience yields an average of 22,000 in additional income. 35553659271000Using the graph to the right, construct a well-written and descriptive (but not interpretative) results section for our deer mouse and Hantavirus study.3933825247015Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2. Deer Mouse population densities and confirmed Hantavirus infections.0Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2. Deer Mouse population densities and confirmed Hantavirus infections.DiscussionThis section is used to interpret the data you described in your results section. Remember, you should be using the background information you found to make sense of your findings and how they compare to your own results. In this section you must include the component or answer the question:Did your results provide any evidence/answers to the hypothesis? Are your results similar to those of other studies or do they differ? Do your results provide us with a new understanding of the topic or point us in a different direction? What is the next step in your study? What were your sources of error and how did they impact your resultsYou must use the background information you collected to explain the results you obtainedRestate the hypothesis and either accept or reject the hypothesis based on the data you collected. You must back up this claim with data you collectedDo NOT include the following:Results and data not included in your results section. Example 1 (Problematic): The good habits of various amphibians were studied in detail by the authors. The data were analyzed statistically and the findings were discussed at length. Certain similarities and differences were found between the species studied and the habitats in which they were found. Conclusions about feeding habits, habitat relationships and niches were made for these species.(Improved): The stomach contents of the red-eft, red-backed salamander, and dusky salamander living in the same area were identified. An analysis of the food eaten shows the feeding habits of the red-eft and the red-backed salamander were different. Only 30% of the food eaten was the same, mainly insect larva. These two salamanders show “niche segregation.” These two salamanders ate similar food (up to 85% the same) when living in different areas but fed on different food when the two species lived in the same area. Our hypothesis was valid. *** Note *** The above example does not include previous research which should be included.Using the results from the previous section, construct a well-written discussion section for the deer mouse and Hantavirus study.References/Literature CitedThis section is used to communicate the actual papers you cited in your own paper. It is important only citations for those papers in which a citation was made are in the body of the paper. Additional papers or sources can be cited in a separate Bibliography (or further reading) section; however, these are not usually included in scientific papers reporting on new findings. All citations should be organized alphabetically by last name. Please feel free to use to organize your bibliography in the proper APA format. Grammar and SpellingPlease read over your paper multiple times to catch obvious errors. Additionally, having a partner examine your work can be very helpful in eliminating common mistakes. ................
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