How to Write a Scientific Paper - Sierra Vista Chemistry
How to Write a Scientific PaperMany students new to scientific, technical writing may find it confusing. It differs in many ways from the type of writing you see in non-science based classes such as English and History. This type of technical writing is the most efficient and effective way to communicate important scientific findings and discoveries to a very broad audience. Since the format does not change, scientists from any part of the world can read a paper without having to decipher the writing methodology used. In other words, you will not find any metaphors, allegories or sonnets in a science paper. Science is being conducted all over the world but every study would be worthless if the results are not communicated to the broader scientific community. Writing is the primary method of communication between scientists and every year millions of pages of scientific papers are published. In an effort to allow for the most papers to be published, scientific writing does not include anything unnecessary. In other words, say only what you need to say in as few words as possible (without sacrificing proper grammar). Your research paper must include the following sections: Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgements and Literature Cited.General FormattingIn order to receive the highest possible grade on your paper it is vital that you check the formatting of your paper. Simply following the instructions laid out here will ensure you get the formatting correct.All papers should have 1” margins with 10-point font writing in Times New Roman or Calibri. All sections with the exception of the title and abstract should be in two columns. (You can find a video showing you how to accomplish this at ). Section Headings:Your section titles should be centered and double spaced from the lines above and below the title. The word(s) should be completely capitalized and bolded. There should be no underlining or italics used. The font size should remain 10-point font. Do not increase or decrease the size for emphasis. 0217170Example:INTRODUCTIONLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Integer lorem lectus, ornare eu convallis a, vulputate in risus. Proin vehicula sit amet dolor sit amet luctus. 0Example:INTRODUCTIONLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Integer lorem lectus, ornare eu convallis a, vulputate in risus. Proin vehicula sit amet dolor sit amet luctus. TitleThe title of your paper is a short section but it is one of the most difficult to write. The goal of every title is to completely describe the content of the paper in only a few words. It should not include any superfluous (unnecessary) information, but should still be very descriptive of the paper’s contents. Remember, this is scientific writing and should not include any “cute” or “imaginative” words/phrases. The title is a statement and should never be phrased as a question.The title should always include the independent and dependent variables of the study. An easy format to use would be:The effect of __(independent variable)__ on __(dependent variable)__.If there is any other important information about the study (location, species, etc.) include it. Remember to use proper formatting for the scientific names of species: the words should be italicized and the genus should be capitalized. If you are working with humans you do not need to include the scientific name (Homo sapiens). AbstractThe abstract is the first section after the title of your paper; however, it will always be the last section you actually write. The goal of the abstract is to provide a complete, yet succinct (to the point) summary of the entire paper. You should include each of the following, preferably with only one to two sentences each. the question(s) you investigated (do not write this as an actual question) and the purpose of the study.your hypothesis the methodology you used to investigate your study.the major findings of the study, especially any trends.brief interpretations of the data and a conclusion.Notice, the above prompts correspond to the major sections of your paper: introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion. Once your abstract is completed, ask yourself, if this is the only part my teacher read, would I be happy with the information I presented to him/her? The abstract is limited to 200-250 words. The abstract should NOT include:too much background informationreferences to another paperincomplete sentences, abbreviations, data tables, graphs, rmation not actually found in the body of the paper. IntroductionThe introduction of a scientific paper has three major parts: background information (from prior scientific research), the purpose/objective of the study and the hypothesis. To make sure your introduction is complete, ask yourself these important questions when writing your introduction: What was I studying? Why was it an important question? What did we know about it before I did this study? How will this study advance our knowledge?PurposeAt the start of this section you will succinctly identify the area of research for your reader. Do not start this section by saying, “The purpose of this study…”.Use key words from your title.Example: Controlling deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) populations have been effective in controlling Hantavirus outbreaks.Background InformationThis section attempts to provide your reader with enough background information on the subject you studied. You must have a total of 6 sources (3 from previous studies performed on your topic and 3 sources which give general background information i.e. websites, textbooks, magazines). You may not use any of the following as sources: Wikipedia, Yahoo Answers, Wise Geek, AskJeeves, or any other open forum based sites. If you are not sure whether a website will count as a source, see your teacher. Background information should be focused on providing the reader with context about your study. You must include information that is not considered common knowledge about your subject. Do not include repetitive or unnecessary information.Ask yourself, “Will this information make my topic easier for the reader to understand?”Example: Using our deer mouse example, some information you should include would be: Deer mouse habitatClarify what the Hantavirus isIdentify the primary host of Hantavirus and how it spreadsAny previous studies that have been conducted on the density of deer mouse populations and infection rates. Some information you should NOT include is:Deer mouse mating habitsHantavirus symptomsEvolutionary history of the deer mouse & HantavirusComparisons to other similar types of infectionsComparisons to other species of miceWith a partner, use a computer to gather appropriate background information for the deer mouse and Hantavirus study. Take notes on the research below. Remember to gather actual data if possible. Formation of the HypothesisThis section will inform the reader of your hypothesis. Your hypothesis must include both the independent and dependent variable. It should be written as a statement, NOT a question. It should not include the words: “I feel”, “I think”, “I believe” or “We hypothesize”. Instead try using a phrase like “We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the…”.If you plan to “go against” the current research, you must have a good explanation of why you believe the consensus from the scientific community is incorrect. While this may not be based on prior research (as it may not have been completed yet), include some background information about the topic that you believe specifically contradicts the research. This should not be the case for the vast majority of your papers in this class. Your hypothesis should be based on information gathered from your research. Example: The majority of the research from our deer mouse study indicates infection rates of Hantavirus go up with increased population density of deer mice; your hypothesis should be similar. Materials and MethodsThe goal of this section is to provide the reader (likely another scientist) with a detailed account of how the study was conducted. It should be detailed enough so another scientist can replicate the study exactly the way you conducted it. Ensure you include necessary quantitative data as well (numbers of specimens, experimental groups, amounts, etc.). Remember, any additional unnecessary information should be omitted. It should be written in paragraph form, do not use the list/recipe format.This section should include the following:The organisms you studied if applicable. You do not need to list humans as an organism. Include their pre-experiment handling and care provided. If the location and time of the study are important, list those as well. A description of the field site used if applicable. You do not need to include a field site if the study can be conducted in a number of settings (SVHS, your house, a classroom, etc.). A description of how your study was structured. This should include your controls, experimental groups, your independent and dependent variables, the number of samples you collected and the total number of replications.A description of how your data was collected.A description of how your data was analyzed. ResultsThis section is meant to present your most important key findings for the reader without interpreting those key findings. You must include data tables and/or figures (graphs/images) to represent your data. This section always starts with text; do not start with a data table or image. The presentation of your data and key findings should be in a logical order that will provide the reader with evidence required to answer the proposed hypothesis from your introduction. Your text and figures should coincide with each other in the order you discuss them. Be sure to include any important negative results found in your study (this does not necessarily indicate you did a bad job)!Do not include the following:Raw data (instead summarize the data statistically using means, percent, etc.). A data table and graph of the same data (use the method that represents the data clearly for the reader).A description of every piece of data represented in your data tables or figures.Data tables, graphs or images without captions.Data tables, graphs or images that are not referenced in the paper with text.Data without the appropriate units.Interpretation of the data.48006002349500Example 1 (Problematic): The average running speed of our two test groups differed by approximately 10 meters/min, which indicates longer rest periods between runs is beneficial. Example 1 (Improved): The average running speed of our two test groups differed by approximately 10 meters/min.4914900367030Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1. This graph shows the correlation between the number of years of experience and the total yearly income of study participants.00Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1. This graph shows the correlation between the number of years of experience and the total yearly income of study participants.Example 2 (Problematic): There is a positive correlation between the amount of experience a person has and his/her total income. Since experience often makes you more valuable to a company, it would make sense his/her income would increase.Example 2 (Improved): There is a positive correlation between the amount of experience a person has and his/her total income. An increase of 30 years of experience yields an average of 22,000 in additional income.DiscussionThis section is used to interpret the data you described in your results section. Remember, you should be using the background information you found to make sense of your findings and how they compare to your own results. You need to restate your hypothesis with or without confidence (“we found”) and indicate how your study has advanced our understanding of the topic. Make sure you answer the following questions: Did your results provide any evidence/answers to the hypothesis? Are your results similar to those of other studies or do they differ? Do your results provide us with a new understanding of the topic or point us in a different direction? What is the next step in your study? What were your sources of error and how did they impact your results? Do NOT include the following:- Results and data not included in your results section. Example 1 (Problematic): The good habits of various amphibians were studied in detail by the authors. The data were analyzed statistically and the findings were discussed at length. Certain similarities and differences were found between the species studied and the habitats in which they were found. Conclusions about feeding habits, habitat relationships and niches were made for these species.Example 1 (Improved): The stomach contents of the red-eft, red-backed salamander, and dusky salamander living in the same area were identified. An analysis of the food eaten shows the feeding habits of the red-eft and the red-backed salamander were different. Only 30% of the food eaten was the same, mainly insect larva. These two salamanders show “niche segregation.” These two salamanders ate similar food (up to 85% the same) when living in different areas but fed on different food when the two species lived in the same area. Our hypothesis was valid. *** Note *** The above example does not include previous research which should be included.Using the results from the previous section, construct a well-written discussion section for the deer mouse and Hantavirus study.AcknowledgementsFor our purposes, this section will be omitted. If you wish to acknowledge people who provided you with assistance for your science fair project, please do so on the board itself.References CitedThis section is used to communicate the actual papers you cited in your own paper. It is important only citations for those papers in which a citation was made are in the body of the paper. Additional papers or sources can be cited in a separate Bibliography (or further reading) section; however, these are not usually included in scientific papers reporting on new findings. All citations should be organized alphabetically by last name. Please feel free to use to organize your bibliography in the proper APA format. Grammar and SpellingPlease read over your paper multiple times to catch obvious errors. Additionally, having a partner examine your work can be very helpful in eliminating common mistakes. ................
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