CHAPTER NUMBER : TITLE



Lesson 8: Islam

Chapter 13 Outline & Notes

I. Introduction

A. The Youngest Major World Religion

B. One of the Largest World Religions

1. Over One Billion Adherents

[TR: As of 2007, there are an estimated 1.2-1.5 billion Muslims in the world, with the majority living in Indonesia, far away from the Middle East. Most American’s tend to think of Arabs as Muslims and Muslims as Arabs. True, Islam had it’s beginnings in the Arabian Peninsula, but it is not limited to that area. In fact, there are more Muslims outside of the Middle East than within it. While its numbers have not yet surpassed those of Christianity, it is the fastest growing religion in the world. This rate increased after the events of 9/11, even in the United States.]

2. Growing Religion in the Developing World

C. Religious /Theological Roots in Judaism and Christianity

D. Muslim Literally Translated: One Who Submits to God

II. Pre-Islamic Arab Religion

[TR: Reminder….religion is a culturally patterned institution…as we’ve learned all semester. So consider the geography and culture of the region as you attempt to understand Islam. By the time of Muhammad (in the 4th-7th centuries CE), the entire Mediterranean world was in transition. The Roman Empire had been divided into East and West, with each side pulling away from the other politically, culturally, and religiously. The Empire itself was crumbling both internally and as a result of attacks from Northern and Eastern invasions. Christianity was still struggling with basic doctrines, administration, and scripture. Remember that the eastern and western branches of Christianity were still arguing over the identity of Jesus well into the 8th century. Meanwhile, the Arabian Peninsula was torn by tribal loyalties and clan rivalry. In the midst of these uncertainties, Islam emerges as a simple message aimed at uniting the many peoples and beliefs of the known world.]

A. Byzantine Christianity

B. Judaism

C. Zoroastrianism

D. Native Religion of the Arab People

1. Difficult to Specify Exact Beliefs because Only Source is the Qur’an’s Biased Description

2. Polytheists with Supreme High God, Allah (“the God”)

a. Local and Tribal Deities Received Most of the Daily Worship

b. Images of Gods and Sacrifices to Them Common

c. Numerous Spirits, Angels, Fairies, Demons

3. Animism

a. Mecca Known in Ancient World for its Animistic Religions

b. A Meteor Fell on Mecca, Become Object of Religious Veneration in Shrine Called Ka’ba

III. The Life of Muhammad

A. Early Life of Muhammad (570-632 C.E.)

1. Born into Clan that Controlled Ka’ba Shrine in Mecca

2. Father Died before Birth, Mother Died when Six; Muhammad Raised by Tribal Chief Uncle, abu-Talib

3. Muslims Strongly Claim Muhammad was Illiterate

4. Muhammad Likely Traveled in Trading Caravans, Encountered Numerous Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians

a. Religions Muhammad Encounters Share Same Basic Traits: One God, One Set of Revealed Scriptures, Eschatology Centered on a Day of Judgment and Assigning People to Eternal Destiny Based on Ethical Behavior in This Life

b. Muhammad Feared for His Polytheistic People

5. Met and Married Wealthy Widow, Khadija

a. Married for Twenty Five Years

b. One Child Survived: Daughter Named Fatima

B. Muhammad’s Religious Experience and Mission

1. During Retreat in Mountains to Meditate, Angel (Gabriel) Appears to Muhammad

2. Gabriel Appears at Intervals throughout Muhammad’s Life, Gives Him Revelations from God

a. Muhammad Orally Reported Revelations to Companions

b. Later Revelations Written Down as the Qur’an

[TR: Muslims do not see Allah as a kind of “big man upstairs” sort of deity that interacts with people in a casual manner. As such, Allah interacts with humankind through “messengers.” In the heavenly realms, these messengers are angels; in the human world, these messengers are prophets (who received messages from angelic beings). In the Qur’an, both Hebrew/Jewish and Christian prophets are revered as true messengers of God. But Muslims would denounce the idea that these prophets/messengers spoke directly to God.]

3. Muhammad Decides there is Only One God, Allah

4. Muhammad Decides He is the Last in a Series of Prophets of Allah; Jewish and Christian Prophets Preceded Him

a. All Earlier Prophetic Preaching Incomplete

b. Muhammad Brings Final, Complete Revelation

5. Muhammad Preaches in Mecca, Meets Hostility Because Economy of Mecca Based on Idol Worship and Ka’ba

a. First Convert: Wife Khadija

b. Second Convert: Disputed in Islamic Tradition: Either Cousin Ali or Slave Boy Zayd

c. Young and Poor Flock to Join New Religion

d. Opposition Grows from Wealthy Established Clan Leadership

e. Muhammad Urges Some Followers to Flee Mecca for Abyssinia, Ethiopia

f. Dominant Clans Boycott Muhammad’s Clan

[TR: In a land torn apart by tribal allegiances, persons who did not belong to a powerful, wealthy clan had little hope of a happy life. Muhammad’s message was radical. If there is One God, there should be One People. One God/One People…no distinctions between rich and poor, haves and have not’s. This message (being similar in appeal to that of Jesus) was well received by the poor and dispossessed in society. But it was met with anger by the powerful tribal leaders of Mecca. This remains an important appeal to people all over the world today. With national (“tribal”) powerhouses like the U.S., Russia, and England controlling the wealth in the world, many people in the world who oppose capitalism and democracy see Muhammad’s message as applicable to their present struggle. And some radical militant groups in Islam believe that justice will not come about until all people lay aside their national and social identities and submit to the One, true God. The same message of One Religion/One People is found in militant Judaism and militant Christianity as well. In the time of Muhammad, however, the prophet himself was very friendly with Christians and Jews, calling them Muwali (friends). And in the great dynasties that emerge after the prophets death, Christians, Jews, and Muslim cooperated together to form the first great centers of learning (early universities).]

6. 619/620 C.E. Uncle and First Wife Die

a. Muhammad Marries Second Wife, the First of Number of Future Wives

b. Muhammad Tries to Flee Mecca but Unable to Find Secure Location, Moves Back to Mecca

C. The Formation of Early Islam

1. The Invitation from Yathrib (Medina)

a. 620 C.E. Six Men from Yathrib (later Medina) Come to Mecca to Confer with Muhammad

b. Yathrib Torn by Clan War and Internal Strife

c. Some Jews in Yathrib Wondered if Muhammad was the Messiah

d. Muhammad Invited to be Judge and Ruler of Yathrib

e. Muhammad Delays Leaving Mecca for Fear of Assassins, but Flees Mecca for Yathrib, Arrive September 24th, 622 C.E.

f. The Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca to Medina Becomes the New Reference Point for Islamic Calendar; Years Dated by A.H. (anno hegirae)

2. Muhammad in Yathrib (Medina) 622 - 630 C.E.

a. Muslims Become Established Clan, but Religion Not Widely Accepted

1) Three Tribes Jewish, One Christian Community

2) Muhammad Meets Resistance from Jews, Develops Hostility towards Jews

b. The “Medina Charter:” Muhammad Receives Political Authority Over City, Guarantees Religious Freedom for Non-Muslims

c. Muhammad Marries Aishah, 623 C.E.

d. Full Scale Military Conflict Breaks Out Between Medina under Muhammad and Mecca

1) Muhammad’s Muslim Supporters Attack Caravans from Mecca

2) Battle of Badr, 624 C.E.: Muhammad’s Supporters—With Muhammad Present Praying for his Troops—Attack Caravan, Kill 70 Men, Take Prisoners and Loot

3) Next Battle with Meccans in 635 C.E., Muhammad Wounded, Medina Forces Take More Losses than Meccans; Considered Victory

e. Full Scale Military Conflict Breaks Out Between Muslims and Regional Jewish Tribes

1) Jews Ridiculed Muhammad, Supported Meccans against Him

2) Muhammad Gives Jews in Medina Ultimatum: Convert to Islam or Exile

3) Jewish Matron, Zainab, Feeds Poisoned Lamb to Muhammad, He Survives

f. 627 C.E. 10,000 Meccans Attack Medina, Fail to Take the City; Muslims Increase Support in Medina

g. Truce with Mecca Allows Muslims to Visit on Pilgrimage

h. Number of Muslims Grows So Large the People of Mecca too Overwhelmed to Resist Any Longer

i. 630 C.E. Muhammad Invades Mecca with a Force of 10,000 Men

j. Muhammad Destroys Idols and Images (but not the black meteor stone or the Ka’ba itself), Earns Respect as Religious-Political Leader of Arabs

k. Muslim Community Grows in Numbers

l. Muhammad Continues to Marry More Wives to Build Political Ties

m. Muhammad Sends Missionaries to Convert Bedouin Tribes in Desert

[TR: In the early years of his ministry, Muhammad encouraged his followers to pray in the direction of Jerusalem. After the conflict with the Jews in Yathrib, he changed his message and called for Muslims to pray in the direction of Mecca. Even so, Jerusalem remains a sacred site from Muslims.]

3. The Last Years of Muhammad

a. After Final Pilgrimage to Mecca in 632 C.E., Muhammad Delivers Farewell Address in Medina

b. Muhammad Dies without Making Any Arrangements for a Successor, Confusion in the Community

c. Abu-Bakr, Muhammad’s Friend and Brother of Wife Aishah, Anointed by Community as the Representative (caliph) of Muhammad

1) Shi’ites Doubt this Version of History

2) Shi’ites Believe Muhammad Designated Cousin and Son-in-Law Ali as Successor

IV. The Qur’an

A. Muslim Beliefs about Qur’an (Literally: Reading, Recitation)

1. Muslims Believe Qur’an Eternal Scripture, Written in Heaven and Revealed Chapter by Chapter to Muhammad

a. Muslims, Unlike Jews and Christians, Believe There was no Human Authorship Involved in Qur’an At All

b. The Qur’an is the Pure Word God Delivered by Angel to Muhammad

c. Muhammad Illiterate; He Memorized Exact (Arabic) Words of God and Conveyed Them to Slave Boy Zayd

d. Zayd Wrote Exact, Verbatim Words of Muhammad on Leaves, Bones, Stone, Parchment

e. After Muhammad’s Death, Zayd’s Writings Collected

f. Third Caliph, Uthman, Worked with Zayd to Develop Authorized Version of the Qur’an

1) The Qur’an Organized into 114 surahs

2) Each surah Contains Approximately 6,000 Verses, or ayas

3) Overall Qur’an Slightly Smaller than New Testament

4) Text Arranged According to Length of surahs in Descending Order With no Topological or Chronological Pattern

2. The Qur’an is God’s Last Word to Humanity, Fulfilling but Surpassing the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures

3. Recitation of Qur’an a Ritual Act for Muslims

a. The Qur’an Central to Muslim Faith, Read and Memorized as Primary Religious Duties

1) Supreme Act of Religious Devotion to Memorize Entire Qur’an

2) Those Who Memorize Qur’an Given Honorary Title of hafiz

b. First Surah (chapter) Begins with “Recite: In the Name of the Lord who created …”

c. Reciting Qur’an Believed a Source of Allah’s Blessing because it Reproduces Allah’s Divine Speech

[TR: The Qur’an was given to Muhammad in Arabic and is written in Arabic. Translations are not reliable as they introduce the human element of interpretation. For this reason, all Muslims all over the world learn their faith in Arabic. Translations can be used as temporary “helps.” This common language/common book helps to form worldwide bonds as well, leading to a sense of solidarity that people of other worldwide faiths do not have. In Judaism and Christianity, the word “inspiration” is used to describe their scriptures. God “inspired” men to write a truthful account of their religious faith. So Hebrew and Christian scriptures are said to be faithful witnesses to God. But in Islam, there is no inspiration—only dictation. The Qur’an does not bear witness to the word of God. It IS, literally, the words that God spoke, through the Angel, to Muhammad; and these EXACT words were what Muhammad repeated to his followers, complete and without error. …In the last half of the 20th century, America witnessed this kind of theology growing among Christian fundamentalists, even though it was not part of that faith previously.]

B. The Nature of God

1. Strict Monotheism of the One Sovereign God

a. The Qur’an Requires All Muslims to Say Once a Day “There is no God but Allah” and Muhammad is “the messenger of Allah.”

b. Judaism is Closest to Islam in Terms of Insistence on Pure, Absolute Monotheism

2. Allah: Omnipresent, Omniscient, Omnipotent Creator

3. Allah Has Ninety-Nine Names

4. Allah is Sovereign and Majestic, but Also Just, Merciful, and Compassionate

5. Allah Surrounded and Aided by Numerous Heavenly Figures

a. Angels Deliver Messages for Allah

b. Warrior Angels Fight with Muslims against Infidels

c. The Jinn: Creatures between Humans and Angels

1) Made of Fire

2) Some Jinn Good, Some Evil (Unbelievers)

3) Leader of Evil Jinn Called Iblis (Arabic for “devil,” “diabolos”

4) Iblis Functions like Satan in Hebrew Book of Job: More a Tempter and Prosecuting Attorney against Human than a God of Evil

5) Iblis Responsible for Fall of Adam

[TR: Recall that Islam means “submission,” and Mu-islam (Muslim) means “one who submits.” While this idea of submission encompasses obeying religious laws, it is not limited to the idea of legal obedience. Because Allah is not a “big man upstairs” but a reality that is beyond all human imagination, ever act of life (breathing, the changing of the seasons, living, dying, loving, eating, etc.) is a kind of submission to a higher power at work in the universe. In this sense, we can think of Islam as a kind of letting go, something natural rather than something artificial or imposed. Submitting to God is something our soul desires, as night turns to day, as the winter turns to spring. Also for this reason, Muslims do not use the word conversion. To become a Muslim is a reversion, a turning back to that which our souls have always known and desired. …..similar to the word re-ligare.]

C. Predestination

1. Pushed to Extreme, the Qur’an’s Teachings about Allah’s Omnipotent Sovereignty Could Seem Fatalistic, Deterministic

a. Some Islamic Groups Read Qur’an This Way

b. Christian Calvinists Read New Testament This Way

2. Islam Stresses Freedom and Responsibility

a. Allah Gives Freedom and Reason, Judges People Based on their Decisions

b. Allah Allows Humans to Make Evil Decisions, but Allah Does not Cause People to be Evil or Good

D. Eschatology

1. Allah’s Judgment of Humanity at End of Time Core Belief

2. Body Dies, Soul Sleeps Until End of Time

3. Bodies Raised at the End of Time, Reunited with Souls

4. Eternal Destiny Based on Faith and Virtue / Infidelity and Vice Before Death

a. Good and Evil of Each Person Recorded

b. Heaven / Hell Similar to Zoroastrian, Judaic, Christian Versions, Accent on the Material Joys of Heaven and Torments of Hell that Desert Dwellers would Understand / Appreciate

V. Religious Institutions

A. The Mosque

1. No Central Temple or Single Holy Shrine

2. Muslims Began as Nomadic People who needed to be Able to Worship Allah Anywhere

3. Only Formal-Communal Religious Requirement: Muhammad Decrees Friday—a Workday—to be a Day of Prayer in Mosques with Fellow Muslims

4. Prayer Led by an Imam, a Non-Clerical Figure Chosen by Community to Lead Prayers Due to Reputation for Piety and Knowledge of Islam

[TR: Note that the title Imam is popularly used by most Muslims to refer to the prayer leader; but in Shia Islam, the term Imam refers to a divinely inspired leader in the early history of the faith. See below.]

5. Sermon in Friday Mosque Meeting in Arabic or Vernacular

6. Mosques Function as Schools and Libraries

a. Islamic Schools (madrashas) Arise Along Major Urban Mosques

b. Teach Qur’an Recitation and Hadith Scholarship

c. Al Azhar in Cairo, One World’s Oldest Universities, Began as madrasha; Counted Today as Most Important Theological School for Sunnis

d. The madrashas of Qom, Iran are Centers for Shi’ite Theology

B. The Five Pillars

1. Repetition of the Creed (shahadah)

2. Daily Prayer (salaht)

a. Five Times a Day Muslims Pray Facing East to Mecca

b. Muslims Must Wash Before Prayers

c. Men and Women Cannot Pray Together

3. Almsgiving (zakaht)

a. Muslims Expected to Give 2.5-10 % of Income

b. Begging is Acceptable Practice in Islam

4. Fasting (sawm)

a. Ramadan Fast: Abstain from Food, Drinking, Smoking, Sex During Daylight Hours for One Month

b. Ramadan Commemorates Time Muhammad Received First Revelation

c. Travelers, Nursing Mothers, Sick, Small Children Exempt from Ramadan Fast

5. Pilgrimage (hajj)

a. The Qur’an Requires Pilgrimage to Mecca as Religious Duty

b. Pilgrimage Occurs in Month Called Dhu al-Hijah

c. Poor Often Use Life Savings to Make Trip

d. Before Air Travel the Old and Sick Made Journey without Hope of Coming Home

e. Muslims Dress in Common Clothing so No Way to Distinguish Rich or Poor

f. After Pilgrimage, Pilgrims May Attach Haji to Their Names as a Title of Honor Indicating Piety

C. Islam and Women

1. Muhammad Raised Status of Women Significantly Higher than Under Pre-Muslim Arab Religion

2. Muhammad Forbid Female Infanticide

3. Muhammad Allowed Polygamy but Limited Number of Wives to Four, Provided Husband Could Afford them and Treated them Equally

4. Muhammad Allowed Divorce if Husband Repeated “I divorce you” Three Times

a. Woman is Allowed to Keep Her Dowry

b. Modern Muslim Societies Allow Wives to Divorce Cruel or Unjust Husbands

5. Women Subordinate to Fathers, Brothers, Husbands

6. Actual Lives of Women Varies Among Different Cultures

D. Islamic Taboos

1. Foods Allowed (halal)

2. Foods / Things Prohibited (haram)

a. Pork

b. Dogs

c. Birds, Beasts of Prey, Donkeys, Mules

d. Alcohol

e. Gambling

E. Jihad

1. Most Controversial Issue within and about Islam

2. “Holy War” is Not Maximally Accurate Translation

3. “Struggle in the path of God” is More Accurate Translation

a. Struggle can Mean Physical Labor

b. Struggle can Mean Interior Battle with One’s Own Vices and Temptations

4. Muslim Scholars Teach that Only Defensive Wars Justified

a. Muslims Historically Have used “jihad” as Term for All Kinds of Wars, Self-Defensive or Otherwise

b. Most Muslims Consider bin Laden’s Use of “jihad” Simplistic, Inaccurate, Self-Serving

VI. The Spread of Islam

A. Reasons for Islam’s Rapid Spread

1. Islam is a Universal Religion

2. Islam is a Simple Religion to Practice with Wide Appeal to the Common Person

3. The World that Surrounded the Early Muslims was Confused and Corrupt

a. Arab People Weary of Strife, Open to a Religion Capable of Reconciling Them

b. Byzantine Christianity Tainted by Corruption and Misrule of the Empire

B. Islam Spreads to Palestine, Syria, Persia, Egypt, North Africa through Combination of Military Conquest and Political Savvy

C. Islam in Spain

1. Enter Spain in 711 C.E. from Berber North Africa

2. Charles Martel Stops Muslims at Battle of Tours, 732 C.E.

D. Islam in India and China

1. The Eleventh Century Caliphs of Baghdad Send Armies and Missionaries East

2. Today Pakistan and Bangladesh Remain Muslim

3. India and China Have Large Muslim Populations

VII. The Caliphate

A. Lack of Formal Structure to Islam

1. Most Religious Duties Can be Done Privately

2. Muhammad Left no Clear Successor, Assumed (perhaps) the Qur’an Would be the Sole Religious Authority

B. The Caliphate as Central Unifying Force in History of Islam

1. A Caliph, from khalifa, “deputy”, “representative”

2. Originally Caliph Elected but Later Hereditary

3. First Caliphs Friends and Relatives of Muhammad

a. abu-Bakr (632-634 C.E.)

b. Umar (634-644 C.E.)

c. Uthman (644-656 C.E.), Murdered

d. Ali (656-661 C.E.)

1) Husband of Muhammad’s Daughter Fatima

2) Caliphate Taken from Him in Power Struggle with Umayyads

3) Murdered 661 C.E.

4) Martyr in Shi’ite Islam

5) Son Husayn Challenged Umayyads

6) Husayn Defeated at Battle of Karbala in Iraq, 680 C.E.

7) Husayn and Family Murdered, Considered Shi’ite Martyrs

[TR: Devout Shi’ites in Southern Iraq still practice the annual remembrance of the martyrdom of Husayn in Karbala, a religious pilgrimage that involves self-mutilation (whipping themselves until bloody). After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein (a Sunni Muslim who repressed Shi’ites in Iraq and disallowed this pilgrimage), this practice was resumed. Karbala has since been a site of sectarian violence. ]

C. Umayyad Caliphs (661-750 C.E.)

1. Based in Damascus, Syria

2. Worldly Political Rulers

D. Abbasid Caliphs (750-1258 C.E.)

1. Ruled from Baghdad

2. Ruled with Pomp and Splendor

3. Encouraged Cooperation with Jews and Christians on Scholarly Projects that Laid Groundwork for Renaissance

E. Mamelukan Turks Rule from Egypt

F. Ottoman Turks Make Caliphate Synonymous with Sultan of Turkey

G. Attempts to Renew the Caliphate

1. After WWI Caliphate Ceases to Exist

2. Hizbul Tahrir Seeks to Restore Caliphate by Peaceful Persuasion

3. bin Laden Seeks Violent Restoration of Caliphate

[TR: I find the idea that bin Laden is seeking a restoration of the caliphate to be a bit simplistic. Bin Laden is concerned with purifying Islam, and of “returning” to some idealistic, fundamentalist monotheism that has never existed. He calls for violence against Muslim nations as well as non-Muslim nations. This is because he is fighting an idealistic war against evil—a cosmic war, rather than a war against any one group. And he alone seems to determine who fits the label of “evil.” Because it is a “cosmic/idealistic war” I have not seen evidence that he has thought beyond the violence to how such a one-world, one-faith civilization could be ruled if it is ever achieved. So, I don’t think everyone would agree that he wants to reestablish the caliphate. He wishes to tear down, not build up.]

VIII. Variations within Islam

A. The Sunnis

1. Eighty-five Percent of Muslims are Sunnis (traditionalist)

2. Base Belief and Practice on Qur’an and hadith (commentaries on the Qur’an by Muhammad and his early followers)

3. Analogy and Consensus Used to Arrive at Conclusions to Religious Questions not Explicitly Treated in Qur’an

4. The Four Schools of Sunni Islam

a. Hanifites: Follow Teachings of Hanifah (d. 767 C.E.), Found in Western Asia, India, Lower Egypt

b. Malikites: Follow Teachings of Malik ibn-Ana (d. 795 C.E.), Found in North and West Africa, Egypt

c. Shafi’ites: Follow al-Shafi’I (d. 820 C.E.), Found in Egypt, Syria, India, Malaysia, Indonesia; Most Liberal and Willing to Balance Qur’an and Culture

d. Hanbalites, Follow Ahmad ibn-Hanbal (d 855 C.E.), Found in Saudi Arabia; Most Conservative

B. The Shi’ites

1. Movement Begins in Political Dispute Over Succession to Muhammad, Develops into Theological Dispute

a. Followers of Ali and Son Husayn

b. Known as Shia Ali, the Party of Ali

c. Comprise 10-15 Percent of all Muslims

2. Shi’ites Believe Imams Divinely Inspired Leaders who Speak on Behalf of Allah

3. Shi’ites Believe in a Series of Imams after 680 (either Seven or Twelve)

a. Some Imams Did Not Die, but are in Hiding

b. Hidden Imams will Return to Earth

4. Shi’ites Believe in Existence of a Mahdi, a Messiah-like Figure who Will Appear One Day to Establish Era of Justice

5. Shi’ites Prize Martyrdom

6. Shi’ites Believe Sunnis Misinterpret the Qur’an

a. Failure to Mention Ali as Muhammad’s Designated Caliph Suggests Sunnis Tampered with Text

b. The Qur’an Has Hidden Meaning that Can Only be Understood through Allegorical Interpretations

7. Based in Persia / Iran

a. Established Religion of Persia in 1502 C.E.

b. Majority of Iraq is Shi’ite

[TR: correction…most of SOUTHERN Iraq is Shi’ite; but central and northern Iraq are more Sunni. Saddam Hussein was Sunni and he persecuted Shi’ites and Kurds in his own country. Today, there is a struggle over the leadership in Iraq, as previously persecuted Shi’ites want a more prominent voice in the government. Sunnis in Iraq, however, are suspicious of the Shi’ites because of their possible affiliation with Iran (a mostly Shi’ite nation). After WWI, there was a European partitioning of land in the Middle East and in Africa. So, old tribal and religious boundaries were discounted by the Europeans, and the lines were redrawn. People living in those areas tend not to respect the foreign, European-imposed lines of nationalism. For this reason, we in the West tend not to understand the “civil” wars that divide these nations. We can’t understand why the people would not want to pull together to strengthen their country. In so doing, we fail to understand that the old boundaries and identities are far more important (and worth preserving) to these people than any “artificial” borders that the Europeans (and Americans) wanted to impose.]

c. Significant Minorities in Saudi Arabia, India, Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa

C. The Mystical Element and the Sufis

1. Asceticism a Marginal Element in Mainstream Islam, but Important to Some Sects

2. The Sufis

a. Name Sufi from sufi, “woolen:” Coarse Wool Garment Worn by Early Muslim Mystics as Symbol of Poverty and Rejection of Worldly Pleasures

b. Reformers who Teach that as Tradition Developed it Became More Worldly and Less Spiritual

c. Probably Origins in Ninth Century C.E. Protest Against Ostentatious Abbasid Rulers

d. Mansur al-Hallaj: Early Mystic Experiences Oneness with God, Proclaims “I am the Truth,” Executed as Heretic in 922 C.E.

e. Spiritual Reform Movement Moves Underground, Develops the Emotional-Mystical Aspects of Islam

f. Appealed to the Common People

g. Abu-Hamid al-Ghazzali Seeks to Unite Legalistic and Mystical Schools of Islam

1) Eventually Gives Up on Orthodoxy, Abandons Family and Lives as a Wandering Beggar

2) Writes Sufi Classics The Revivification of the Religious Sciences, The Folly of the Philosophers, Niche of the Lights

3) Maintained Importance of Ritual and Held that Even Advanced Sufis Bound by Ritual Duties

h. Sufis Begin to Organize in Twelfth Century into Fraternities Centered on Sufi Saints

IX. Islam in the Modern World

A. Islam’s Inherently Conservative Nature Prevented it from Developing Along Lines of the Modern, Technological Secular West

1. Emphasis on Fullness of Truth in the Qur’an Discouraged Science and Exploration

2. Suspicious of Changes Originating Outside Islam

3. Sense of Superiority and Self-Satisfaction Relative to European Bred Complacency

4. Development of Ultra-Conservative Groups that Resist Any and All Change in Islam

a. Muhammad ibn-Abd al-Wahhab and the Wahhabi Movement Associated with the House of Sa’ud in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Saudi Arabia

b. Anti-Sufi, Puritanical

c. Well Funded by Petrodollars, Wahhabi Sect Has Established Bases in Most Muslim Countries

B. The End of Islam’s Isolation

1. Napoleon’s Invasion of Egypt in Nineteenth Century

2. Ottoman Empire Fights in WWI on Side of Austria-Germany, Suffers Conquest by Western Powers

a. Maps of Modern Arab States Drawn After WWI

b. Influence of West on Arab States

3. The Rise of the Oil Industry

C. Contemporary Resurgence of Interest in Islam

1. Reform Movements within Islam Practicing Modern Scientific Study of the Qur’an

2. Reform Movements with Islam Seeking to Reconcile Islam to Science and Democratic – Pluralistic Society

3. Rise of Islamic Feminism

4. Missionary Movements in Southern Africa

X. Muslim Calendar and Holy Days

A. The Muslim Calendar

1. Twelve Lunar Months of Twenty-nine or Thirty Days

a. Total 354 Days Per Year

b. 103 Muslim Years Equal 100 Solar Years

2. Calendar Dates Beginning from the Hijrah (date of Muhammad’s death is not 632 C.E., but 10 A.H.)

B. Feast of the Fast-Breaking (‘Id al-Fitr)

1. First Day of Shawwal, the Month After Ramadan

2. Time of Feasting, Visiting Family, Exchanging Gifts, Sending Cards

C. Feast of Sacrifice (‘Id al-Adha)

1. Held on Tenth of dhul-Hijah, the Month of Pilgrimage

2. Commemorates Time when Abraham Commanded by God to Sacrifice His Son Ishmael

D. New Year

1. Month of Muharram, Believed to be Month of Hijrah

2. The Tenth Commemorates Battle of Karbala for Shi’ite

3. The Tenth a Day of Fasting for Sunnis

E. Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (Mawlid an-Nabi)

1. The Twelfth Day of the Third Month

2. Recitations of Prophet’s Biography and Prayers for Him

XI. Islam Today

A. Islam Growing Around the World

1. Western European Muslim Population Increasing Due to Immigration

2. American Muslim Population Increasing Due to Immigration and Conversion, Now Second Most Popular Religion in U.S.

B. The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism

1. Backlash Against Presence of Western Culture and Values in Islamic Societies

2. Secularism Demonized as Source of Moral, Political Decay

3. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 Galvanizes Fundamentalists Seeking to Openly Combat Western Secularism

4. The Saudi Arabian Model: Islamic Fundamentalism Publicly Cooperating with Secular West but Quietly Undermining it

C. The Islamic Backlash Against Fundamentalism

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