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INTRODUCTION
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Gramatica limbii engleze în tabele şi scheme
Gramatica limbii engleze în tabele şi scheme este o lucrare ce cuprinde morfologia şi sintaxa. Ea este elaborată pentru studentii al caror scop este de a studia limba engleză. Aceestă carte are drept obiective de bază familiarizarea şi asimilarea de către studenţi a structurilor gramaticale de bază ale limbii engleze, folosirea părţilor de vorbire precum şi evitarea dificultăţilor întîmpinate de către studenţi în utilizarea acestor părţi de vorbire şi a categoriilor lor gramaticale. Lucrarea dată cuprinde de asemenea, sistemul timpurilor verbale, corespondenţa timpurilor, vorbirea directă şi indirectă îmbinarea cuvintelor în propoziţie şi a propoziţiilor în frază.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I: MORPHOLOGY
Grammatical structure of the English language.
General classification of the parts of speech.
THE NOUN
Definition
Morphological and syntactical characteristics
Morphological composition
Classification
The category of number
The category of case
The category of gender
THE ARTICLE
Use of articles with common nouns
Use of articles with proper nouns
Special difficulties in the use of articles
Absence of articles
THE ADJECTIVE
Definition
Morphological and syntactical characteristics
Morphological composition
Classification
THE ADVERB
Definition
Classification
Degrees of comparison
THE PRONOUN
Definition
Classification
THE NUMERAL
Definition
Classification
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATE
THE VERB
Definition
Grammatical categories
Types of verbs
Tenses in the Active Voice
The Present Indefinite
The Present Continuous
The Past Simple
The Past Continuous
The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect Continuous
The Past Perfect
The Past Perfect Continuous
The Future Indefinite
Going to – construction
The Future Continuous
The Future Perfect Simple
The Future Perfect Continuous
The Future – In – The – Past Simple
The Future – In – The – Past Continuous
The Future Perfect– In – The – Past
The Future Perfect Continuous – In – The – Past
Tenses in the Passive Voice
The formation of the Passive Voice
The use of tenses in the Passive Voice
The use of the Passive Voice
Modal Verbs
Moods
The Imperative Mood
The Subjunctive Mood
The Conditional Mood
THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)
The Infinitive
The Gerund
The Participle
THE MODAL WORDS
THE INTERJECTION
Definition
Classification
THE PREPOSITION
Definition
Classification
THE CONJUNCTION
Definition
Classification
THE PARTICLE
Definition
Classification
PART II: SYNTAX
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Definition
Classification
Parts of the Sentence
The Main Parts of the Sentence
The Subject
The Predicate
Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The Object
The Attribute
The Adverbial Modifier.
Detached Parts of the Sentence
The independent Elements of the Sentence
Sentences with Homogeneous Parts
WORD ORDER
General remarks
Inverted order of words
Position of the object
Position of the attribute
Position of the adverbial modifiers
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The Compound Sentence
General Notion
Types of Coordination
The Complex Sentence
General Notion.
Types of clauses.
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
THE INDIRECT SPEECH
EXERCISES
MORPHOLOGY
THE NOUN
THE ARTICLE
THE ADJECTIVE
THE ADVERB
THE PRONOUN
THE NUMERAL
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATE
THE VERB
Tenses in the Active Voice
Tenses in the Passive Voice
Modal Verbs
Moods
THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)
THE MODAL WORDS
THE INTERJECTION
THE PREPOSITION
THE CONJUNCTION
THE PARTICLE
SYNTAX
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
The Main Parts of the Sentence
The Subject
The Predicate
Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The Object
The Attribute
The Adverbial Modifier.
Detached Parts of the Sentence
The independent Elements of the Sentence
Sentences with Homogeneous Parts
WORD ORDER
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The Compound Sentence
The Complex Sentence
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
THE INDIRECT SPEECH
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
§ 1.
Give a short description of types of languages
[pic]
§ 2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more form words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g. He has come, I am reading.
|The analytical forms are: |Examples |
|1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms | |
|the Continuous form: |I am writing |
|the Perfect form: |I have written |
|the Perfect Continuous form: |I have been writing |
|the Future Indefinite: |I shall write |
|all the other forms of the Future; also the interrogative and the negative |Does he sing? |
|forms of the Present and Past Indefinite: |He doesn’t sing |
|2. The Passive Voice: |I was invited to the theatre. |
|3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: |I should go there if I had time. |
§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
|The synthetic forms in English are: |Examples |
|1. Endings: | |
|-s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: |speaks |
|-s in the plural of nouns: |tables |
|-s in the genitive case: |my brother's book |
|-ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: |smoked |
|2. Inner flexions: |man - men; speak - spoke |
|3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: |were, be, have, etc. |
§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.
§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.
|One replaces class nouns in the singular and in the plural: |Thanks for the compliment, if it is one. |
| |The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy ones he had, and they were not all|
| |happy. |
|That generally substitutes nouns, especially abstract nouns and nouns of |He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front of him, and for the first |
|material followed by an attribute, mostly introduced by the preposition of: |time realized that his walk was different from that of other men. |
| |Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for a ride in her own car or that|
| |of Castleman. |
|Do substitutes verbs: |You know your law better than I do. |
| |Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness; I only do so because I care. |
PART I: MORPHOLOGY
Give a short definition of Morphology
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
|THE PARTS OF SPEECH |
|Notional - perform certain functions in the sentence: the functions of subject,|Structural - either express relations between words or sentences, or emphasize |
|predicate, attribute, object, or adverbial modifier. The notional parts of |the meaning of words or sentences. They never perform any independent function |
|speech are: the noun; the adjective; the pronoun; the numeral; the verb; the |in the sentence. Here belong: the preposition; the conjunction; the particle; |
|adverb; the words of the category of state; the modal words; the interjection. |the article. |
THE NOUN
The noun is a word expressing substance. [pic]
Morphological composition of nouns
[pic]
|Types of nouns |Characteristics |Examples |
|Simple |are nouns which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are indecomposable: |chair, table, room, map, fish, work. |
|Derivative |are nouns which have derivative elements (prefixes or suffixes or both) |reader, blackness, childhood, misconduct, |
| | |inexperience. |
|Compound |are nouns built from two or more stems. | |
| |The main types of compound nouns are as follows: | |
| |(a) noun-stem + noun-stem: |snowball; |
| | | |
| |(b) adjective-stem + noun-stem: |blackbird, bluebell; |
| | | |
| |(c) verb-stem + noun-stem: |pickpocket; |
| | | |
| |the stem of a gerund or of a participle may be the first component of a |dining- room, reading-hall, dancing-girl. |
| |compound noun: | |
Classification of nouns
| |Types of nouns |Explanation |Example |
|A) |Proper |They are individual names given to separate persons or things. | |
| | |They are used to designate: | |
| | |personal names: | |
| | | |Deborah, Smith |
| | |titles: | |
| | | |Mr. Jackson, Lord Byron, Dr. Johnson |
| | | | |
| | |calendar items: |Sunday, January, Christmas |
| | | | |
| | |geographical names: |Britain, Europe, The Pacific Ocean, The Black Sea, |
| | | |the Caucasus |
| | | |Gone with the Wind, The Guardian, The United Nations|
| | |titles of books, newspapers, institutions: |Organization |
| | | |English, Greek, Spanish |
| | |names of nationalities and languages: | |
| | | | |
| | |names of ships, hotels, clubs etc. |Mayflower, the Regent Hotel |
|B) |Common |are names that can be applied to any individual of a class of |man, tree, curiosity |
| | |persons or things. | |
| | | | |
| |class nouns |denote persons or things belonging to a class. They are |a part of the town |
| | |countable and are generally used with an article. | |
| | | | |
| |collective |denote a number or collection of similar individuals or things | |
| | |regarded as a singular unit. They denote: | |
| | |nouns used only in the singular: | |
| | | | |
| | |nouns that are singular in form though plural in meaning: |machinery, foliage |
| | | | |
| | |nouns that may be both singular and plural: |police, poultry, cattle, people |
| | | | |
| | |denote material and are uncountable. | |
| | | |family, crowd, fleet |
| | |denote some quality, state, action or, idea: | |
| |nouns of material |They are usually uncountable; though | |
| | |some of them may be countable: |iron, gold, paper, tea, water |
| |abstract | | |
| | |Existing in a form that can be touched, seen, etc. |kindness, sadness, fight |
| | |nouns that can be counted | |
| | |nouns denoting things that cannot be counted: |idea, hour |
| |concrete | | |
| | | |girl, apple, pen |
| |countable | | |
| |uncountable | | |
| | | |computer, table |
| | | |freedom, goodness |
THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER
[pic]
| |Rules for forming the plural of English nouns: |Examples |
|1. |By adding the ending -s (-es) to the singular; -s is pronounced in different ways: | |
| |[iz] after the sounds [s] ; [∫], [d ], [t∫ ], [ ], [z] | |
| | |noses, bushes; villages; benches; horses, bridges |
| |[z] after vowels and the sounds [b], [d], [g], [l], [m], [n], |bees, pubs, beds, mornings, cans doves, |
| |[ ŋ], [ð], [v] | |
| | | |
| |[s] after the sounds: [k], [ƒ], [p], [t], [ө] |caps, books, hats, cliffs, months |
|2. |If the noun ends in -s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, or -tch, the plural is formed by adding -es to |bus- buses glass- glasses |
| |the singular: |box – boxes brush - brushes |
| | |bench – benches match - matches |
|3. |If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, y is changed into i before –es: |fly – flies army- armies |
| |Note: If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by simply adding -s to | |
| |the singular: |day – days toy - toys |
| | |monkey - monkeys |
|4. |If the noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, the plural is generally formed by adding |hero – heroes potato - potatoes |
| |-es. |echo – echoes |
| | | |
| |Only a few nouns ending in –o preceded by a consonant form the plural in -s |piano – pianos photo - photos |
| | | |
| |All nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form the plural in -s and not in -es. | |
| | |cuckoo – cuckoos |
| |There are some nouns ending in –o that may have both –s and –es for the plural: |portfolio - portfolios |
| | | |
| | |motto –motos/-es |
| | |tobacco – tobaccos/-es |
|5. |a) Most nouns ending in –f or –ef get –s in the plural: |belief – beliefs cliff –cliffs |
| | |grief – griefs roof – roofs |
| | | |
| |b) There are a few nouns that change –f or –fe into –ves when turned into the plural: |half – halves knife – knives |
| | |leaf – leaves life –lives loaf |
| | |–loaves shelf – shelves thief – |
| | |thieves wife –wives |
| |NB. There are some nouns ending in -f which have two forms in the plural: | |
| | |scarf- scarfs/ scarves |
| | |wharf – wharfs/ wharves |
|6. |Nouns ending in –th get –s in the plural. The ending –th is pronounced: a) [ð] |a) bath – baths |
| |b) [ө] |b) death - deaths |
| |a) Nouns ending in -th [ө] after long vowels change it into [ð] in pronunciation (which | |
| |does not affect their spelling). |bath [ba:ө]- baths [ba:ðz] |
| | |path [pa:ө]- paths [pa:ðz] |
| | |oath [ouө] - oaths [ouðz] |
| |b) [ ] is always retained after consonants (including r) and short vowels: | |
| | |month - months [m n s] |
| | |myth - myths [mi s] |
| | |birth - births [b : s] |
| |NB. There are some nouns whose plural form –ths may be pronounced either [ө] or [ð]. |health - healths [hel s] |
| | | |
| | |cloths – clothes truth - truths |
| | |sheath – sheaths wreath – wreaths |
|7. |The noun house has the plural |houses [hauziz ] |
|8. |There are certain irregular nouns, i.e. they do not need –s at the end to form the plural |child – children man – men mouse - |
| |form: |mice foot -feet |
| | |woman – women tooth - teeth |
| | |goose – geese louse - lice |
| | |ox – oxen |
|9. |A number of nouns get zero plural i.e. have the same form in both singular and plural: | cod; sheep; deer; Chinese; Japanese |
|10. |In compound nouns the plural is formed in different ways: |armchair-armchairs |
| |a) adding –s to one of the parts of speech |forget-me-not – forget-me-nots |
| | |brother-in-law – brothers-in-law |
| |b) or changing the root vowel |man - servant – men-servants |
|11. |Some words borrowed from Latin or Greek keep their Latin or Greek plural forms: |phenomenon - phenomena |
| | |datum – data crisis - crises |
| | |stimulus - stimuli formula - formulae |
| | |index - indices terminus - termini |
| |Some of these nouns have acquired English plural forms: | |
| | |formulas, indexes, terminuses, etc. |
|12. |A few nouns are used only in the singular being called Singularia Tantum nouns. |advice, barley, bread, business, butter, cotton, furniture,|
| | |income, information, knowledge, luggage, nylon, etc. |
| | | |
| |None of these nouns can be preceded by the indefinite article a/an and, as some of them |a {piece/slice} of bacon/cake |
| |have a collective meaning, when we want to refer to the singular, we must use the words: |a {piece/loaf} of bread |
| |piece, item, bar, bag, etc.: |a {piece/word} of advice |
| | |a {piece/item} of information/news |
|13. |A number of nouns (Pluralia Tantum) have only a plural form: |shorts, trousers, measles, mumps, hysterics, glasses, |
| | |scissors, billiards, cards, economics, informatics, |
| | |politics, doings, funds (fonduri), remains (resturi), |
| | |savings (economii), etc |
THE CATEGORY OF CASE
- the grammatical category which shows the relations of the noun to the other words in the sentence.
[pic]
|Case |Explanations |Examples |
|Nominative |Answers the questions: who? and what? |The teacher asks us a lot of questions. |
| | |A strong wind is blowing. |
|Genitive |It answers the questions: whose? (al cui, a cui, ai cui, ale cui?) which? what? (care| |
| |?) | |
| |It is formed by adding ‘, ‘s, or of: | |
| |‘ is used with plural forms ending in –s |The girls’ coats |
| |NB.1. Nouns forming their plural by changing the root vowel take ‘s in the plural: |Men’s hats |
| | | |
| |‘s is usually used with: | |
| |Proper names: | |
| | |Deborah’s town |
| |Names of persons: | |
| | |My friend’s bag |
| |When the possessor is represented by several words, the possessive ending is added | |
| |after the last one only: |The boy and the girl’s toys. (they have the same |
| | |toys) |
| |If each possessor is followed by ‘s, this means that the possessed objects differ: | |
| | |The boy’s and the girl’s toys (the boy has some |
| | |toys and the girl has others) |
| |When we have groups of words and composed titles, the sign of the ‘s is added to the | |
| |last word. |My mother-in law’s words, |
| | |In Henry VIII’s reign |
| |Collective nouns: | |
| | |The government’s decisions – deciziile guvernului.|
| |Abstract nouns: | |
| | |Liberty’s defense |
| | | |
| |Names of countries, towns: |Romanian’s towns, London’s parks. |
| | | |
| | |The sun’s rays |
| |Names of celestial bodies: | |
| | |Our ship’s crew. |
| |Names of vessels, boats, ships: | |
| | |(today, week, month, etc. ): |
| |Names of chronological divisions or nouns denoting measurements, distance, weight, |You must come to tomorrow’s meeting. |
| |etc. | |
| | |another’s claim, somebody’s |
| |With some of the indefinite pronouns: another, either, neither, one, etc. and the |advice, either’s offer, anyone’s opinion |
| |composed forms of: some, any, no, every, etc. | |
| | |for God’s sake |
| |With some expressions: | |
| | |Dickens' novels, Dickens's novels. [dikinsiz] |
| |NB. 2. Nouns ending in -s form the genitive case in two ways: The pronunciation of | |
| |the genitive case -ending follows the same rules as the pronunciation of the plural | |
| |ending. | |
| |of is used: |The wings of the fly. |
| |when the possessor is a small animal, insect, etc.: | |
| | |Those toys of the children |
| |when the possessed object is preceded by a demonstrative adjective or by the |Tom is a cousin of my friend. |
| |indefinite article: | |
| | |Of a size, in order of, in sight of |
| |in some idiomatic expressions: | |
| | |A writer of prose – a prose-writer = un scriitor |
| |sometimes we avoid of and form compound words: |de proza |
| | |The cover of the book – the book cover = coperta |
| | |cartii |
| | | |
| | |The leg of the table |
| |with common nouns | |
THE CATEGORY OF GENDER
It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English for it is hardly ever expressed by means of grammatical forms. There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern English, the suffix -ess, expressing gender. It is not widely used.
heir - heir-ess poet - poet-ess
[pic]
|Feminine gender |
|a) adding suffixes to the masculine |actor – actress; waiter – waitress; master – mistress; |
|form |author – authoress; duke – duchess; hero – heroine; |
| |fiancé - fiancée; widow-widower; bride-bridegroom |
| |comedian-comedienne; director-directrix (directress); |
| |boy – girl; father – mother; sister- brother; husband - wife; uncle – |
|b) using different words |aunt; nephew – niece; wizard - witch; bachelor - |
| |maid/spinster; drake – duck; gander- goose |
|c) using a word that indicates the |nouns denoting persons |
|sex. |boy fried-girl friend male patient - female patient |
| |brother-in-law - sister-in-law man friend – woman friend |
| | |
| |nouns denoting animals |
| |he-bird – she-bird male camel – female camel |
| |male/tom cat – female/tabby cat cock-pheasant – hen-pheasant |
| |he/billy-goat – she /nanny- goat buck-rabbit – doe-rabbit |
|The use of compounds in which the |grandfather - grandmother landlord - landlady |
|second element specifies gender: |chairman – chairwoman half brother – half sister |
|The nouns that indicate nationality |an Englishman – an Englishwoman a Dutchman – a Dutchwoman |
|or origin. (man - the masculine |a Frenchman – a Frenchwoman a Scotsman – a Scotswoman |
|gender; woman – the feminine). | |
| | |
|All the other nouns that indicate a | |
|person’s nationality or origin have | |
|one form for the both genders: |British American Chinese German Greek |
| |Italian etc. |
|Sometimes for clarity the word woman | |
|or girl is used: | |
| | |
| |a Romanian woman (girl) a Japanese woman |
| |a Spanish woman etc. |
|Common gender |
|denotes either sex and the same word | adult animal cook doctor |
|maybe used both of male and female: |neighbour professor relative servant etc. |
| | |
|Neuter gender |
|denotes things, ideas or beings whose|book house thought, etc. |
|sex are not interested in: | |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of noun.
2. Give the definition of proper and common nouns.
B. Application
1. Give examples of proper, common, abstract, concrete, countable, and uncountable nouns.
C. Integration
1. Compare the category of gender in English and Romanian.
THE ARTICLE
[pic]
|USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS |
|I. The use of the definite article with common nouns. |
| | |
|When the noun has already been mentioned or it is well known. |How did you like the play? |
|When the speaker uses an attribute pointing out a particular object. | |
| |This is the house that Jack built. |
| |The wedding looked dismal. The bride was too old and the |
|The English use the definite article much oftener than the demonstrative pronouns |bridegroom was too young. |
|this or that. | |
| |Let me have the book. |
|Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase. | |
| | |
| |The capital of France. |
|Before nouns which are considered unique: the earth, the Bible, the sky, the sun. |The house with large windows. |
| | |
|NB. The indefinite article can be used when we mean a certain aspect in which the |The sun was getting warmer. |
|sun, moon and sky appear to us, a certain state of the sun, the moon, the sky. In | |
|this case an attribute is used. | |
| |A pearl-white moon smiles through the green trees. |
|Before a singular noun used as a representative of a class: | |
| | |
|NB. a) With the noun man no article is used. | |
| |The elephant is a big animal. |
|b) The noun woman is used with the definite article or occasionally without an |But: Elephants are big animals. |
|article. | |
| |Silas felt that his trust in man had been cruelly destroyed. |
| |He had always been interested in that mysterious being – the |
|Before superlatives and ordinal numbers: |woman. |
| |Woman is man's helpmate. |
|With nouns in word – groups the first component of which is: some, many, none, most| |
|and the second a noun wit the preposition of: |the best, the second etc. |
| | |
|With nouns modified by the pronoun same and the adjectives wrong, right, very. |Most of the gentlemen looked both angry and uncomfortable. |
| | |
| | |
| |To all invitations he replied with the same courteous and |
|With substantivized adjectives and participles. |positive refusal. |
| |I do wish we had not opened the door of the wrong room. |
|With the names of materials when they are narrowed in their meaning. | |
|NB. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such |Only the simple and the humble were there. |
|is meant, no article is used. | |
|With abstract nouns that are modified by a particularizing attribute or the |But suddenly he heard steps on the snow. |
|situation makes the idea definite. | |
|Before a common noun followed by a proper noun which identifies it: |Honey is wholesome. |
|But nouns expressing professions usually follow the proper names and are preceded by| |
|the: | |
|NB. If a noun is modified by a proper noun in the genitive case no article is used. |He was the courage of his father, the spirit of his brothers, the|
| |hope of his children. |
|Before names of musical instruments: | |
| |The novelist Hemingway. |
|With the words: the police, the fire-brigade, the army, the bank, the post office. | |
| |Brown, the lawyer – Brown, avocatul |
|Also with the words: the doctor, the dentist: | |
| |I met Robert’s father. |
|We say the cinema/ the theatre: | |
|NB: when we say the cinema/ the theatre we do not necessarily mean one particular | |
|cinema or theatre. |To play the piano/violin |
|We usually say the radio; | |
| |I must go to the bank to change some money and then I am going to|
|But we usually say television (without the). |the post. |
| |John isn’t very well. He has gone to the doctor. (his doctor) |
| | |
|In a number of phrases: |We went to the cinema last night. |
| | |
| | |
| |We often listened to the radio. |
| |We often watch television. |
| |But: Can you turn off the television, please? |
| |By the way, on the one hand, in the country, at the seaside, in |
| |the evening, etc. |
|II. The use of the indefinite article with common nouns. |
|When the speaker presents the object expressed by the noun as belonging to a certain|Close beside them grew a rose-bush covered with scarlet hips. |
|class. | |
| |Miss Sharp's father was an artist. |
|With a predicative noun. |She was engaged as governess. |
|NB. After the conjunction as a predicative noun is often used without an article. | |
|When the noun is used in a general sense. The article has the meaning of every. |A drowning man catches at a straw. |
|There are cases when the indefinite article preserves its old original meaning of | |
|'one'. |A stitch in time saves nine. |
| | |
|Abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article. In this case the abstract | |
|noun denotes a certain kind of a quality, feeling, state, etc. |In her eyes there was an eagerness, which could hardly be seen |
| |without delight. |
|With the nouns period, population, distance, height, salary etc. followed by of + | |
|numeral + noun. | |
| |Simpson was out of the city for a period of ten days. |
|When we want to classify people in terms of their occupation: | |
|NB.1 If the noun denotes a title or office that can only be held by one person at a |I am a doctor. – Eu sunt doctor. |
|time the indefinite article is no longer used: | |
|NB.2 The indefinite article is not used after the verb to turn when it means to |Jack was elected captain of the team. – a fost ales capitan. |
|become. | |
| |She used to be a dancer, but then she turned singer. |
|In expression of measurements, when we refer to one unit of measurement in terms of | |
|another. |90p a kilo/ 80 km an hour/ twice a week. |
|In exclamatory sentences beginning with what, such or so. | |
|NB. The indefinite article precedes the adjective when used with such and it follows|What a day! |
|the adjective when used with so: | |
|NB. If the noun following what or such is uncountable, the indefinite article is not|He was such (atît) a good worker! |
|used: |He was so (aşa) good a worker. |
|However, it is corrected to say what a pity, although pity is an uncountable noun. |What weather we are having at the moment. |
| | |
|In a number of phrases: | |
| | |
| |as a rule = de regulă; as a reward = ca rasplată; at a distance =|
| |la distantă, etc. |
|USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS |
|I. Names of persons |
|Names of persons are used without articles. |He looked at Lanny and Ann. |
| | |
|In most cases no article is used with names of persons modified by the adjectives old, |She is the widow of poor Giovanni Bolla. |
|young, poor, dear, little, honest, lazy. | |
|NB. When modified by other adjectives and participles, the definite article is used. |The astonished Tom could not say a word. |
| | |
|Nouns denoting military ranks and titles such as academician, professor, doctor (both a |Painter Gainsborough left many fine pictures. |
|profession and a title), count, lord, etc. followed by names of persons do not take the | |
|article. | |
| | |
|Nouns indicating relationship, such as farther, mother, sister, brother, aunt, master, |Mother trimmed the hats. |
|etc. are used by the members of the family or by intimate friends, are used without an | |
|article. | |
|Or when a proper name is added to the nouns aunt, sister, cousn, etc. | |
| |Uncle Benjamin lived in a very nice town. |
|The indefinite article is used when names of persons: | |
|a) are used to denote a representative of a family: |Florence will never, never, never be a dumber. |
|b)are modified by the adjective certain: |I heard it from a certain Mr. Brown. |
| | |
|The definite article is used: |The Dashwoods were now settled at Berton. |
|a) When these names denote the whole family. |You're not the Andrew Manson I married. |
| | |
|b) When names of persons are modified by a particularizing attribute. | |
| |He is a Mexican. – El este Mexican. |
|when we want to classify people in terms of: |She’s a Catholic. - Ea este catolică. |
|a) their origin: |Tom is a Republican. |
|b) their religion: | |
|c) their politics: | |
|II. Geographical names |
|No article is used with: | |
|Continents: |Africa, Asia, Europe |
|Countries and States: |France, Japan, Texas |
|But we say the |The U.S.A, the U.K., the Republic of Ireland |
|a) with names which include words like “republic”, union, kingdom, states: |The Netherlands |
|b) with plural names: |New York, Madrid |
|Cities/ towns/ villages: | |
|Exception: The Hague (in the Netherlands) |Bermuda, Easter Island |
|Individual islands : |The British Isles |
|NB. Island groups usually have plural names with the: |Lake Superior |
| |Regent Street, Red Square |
|Lakes: | |
|We don’t normally use the with names of streets/ roads/ squares etc. | |
|NB. The Mail, the High Street, the Strand. | |
|We use the with: |The Middle East, the Far East, the North of England, the |
|Regions: |west of Canada |
|But northern England, southern Spain, western Canada – without the | |
|Mountain ranges: |The Rocky Mountains, the Alps |
|But individual mountains usually have names without the: |Ben Nevis (in Scotland) |
| |the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, the Thames, the English |
|Names of oceans/ seas/ rivers/ canals have the: |Channel |
|Note: On maps the is not usually included in the name. | |
| |
|III. Names of cardinal points |
|the definite article is used with the names of cardinal points. |The North, the South, the West, the East |
|NB. No article is used in the expressions: |From East to West, from North to South |
| |
|IV. Names of airports, universities, shops, restaurants, hotels, banks, etc. |
|Many names (e.g. of airports or universities) are made of two words: the first word is |Kennedy Airport, Cambridge University |
|usually the name of a person (Kennedy) or a place (Cambridge). We don’t usually say the | |
|with names like these. | |
|But we say the White House, the Royal Park because white and royal are not names. | |
|We usually say the before the names of: | |
|hotels: | |
|restaurants/ pubs: |the Regent Hotel |
|cinema: |the Chinese Restaurant |
| |the Odeon |
|museums/ galleries: |the British Museum |
|before the names of places, buildings, etc. with of. |The Bank of England; The houses of Parliament |
|Exceptions: many shops, restaurants, hotels, banks, etc. are named after the people who |Lloyds Bank, Macdonald’s |
|started them. We don’t use the with these names. |London Zoo, Victoria Station |
|the with the names of newspapers. |The Washington Post |
|Churches are usually named after saints. |St. John’s Church |
|SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF ARTICLES |
|I. The use of articles with the nouns morning, day, night, evening, afternoon, midnight |
|Nouns denoting the parts of the day; morning, day, evening, afternoon, midnight are used |The night was fine but very dark. |
|with the definite article when a particular morning, evening etc. is meant. | |
| | |
|The nouns day, night etc. have no article when they are used in a more general abstract | |
|sense: | |
|when the nouns day, morning, night etc. are predicatives, sometimes - objects: | |
|in one member sentence: |It was midnight. - Era miezul noptii. |
| | |
|in phrasiological combinations of these nouns with the prepositions: |Morning, cold and gray. – |
| | |
|NB. Sometimes the article is also absent with other prepositions. But in these cases both|It is easier to work by day than at night. |
|absence of the article and the definite article may be found depending on the meaning |by day; at night, at noon, etc. |
|implied. | |
|d) after such constructions: |We reached home towards evening. (time) – Am ajuns acasă spre|
| |seară. (Towards the evening – the evening of that particular |
|e) When day or morning means light and evening or night means darkness. |day.) |
| |Morning after morning. |
| | |
| |I rose as soon as day dawned. - Eu m-am trezit numai cum s-a|
| |luminat de zi. |
|II. The use of articles with names of seasons. |
|1. Names of seasons are used without articles: | |
|a) if they show a certain time of the year. |It was spring. |
|b) when they are modified by the adjectives early or late. |It was early spring. |
|2. The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a | |
|particularizing attribute or the situation makes them definite. |It happened in the spring of 1930. |
|3. The indefinite article is used when these nouns are modified by a | |
|descriptive attribute. | |
| |It was a cold spring. |
|III. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail. |
|These nouns are used without an article when they loose their concrete meaning |Mary goes to school. (She is a pupil) |
|and express the purpose for which the objects denoted by these nouns serve. | |
|When these nouns denote concrete objects the articles are used according to the| |
|general principle. | |
| |Mother went to the school yesterday to attend a parents’ meeting. |
| |She worked at a school in Siberia. |
|IV. The use of articles with the names of meals. |
|Names of meals are used without articles. |When did you have dinner? |
| | |
|The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing|The dinner we had today was very substantial. |
|attribute or the situation makes them definite. | |
|The indefinite article is used when these nouns are modified by a descriptive | |
|attribute. |After a hearty breakfast the four gentlemen left. |
|V. The use of articles with the names of languages. |
|These names are used without articles when they are not followed by the noun |She knows English. |
|language. | |
|When the noun language is mentioned the definite article is used. |The English language. |
|VI. The use of articles with the word space. |
|We say space (not “the space) when we mean space in the universe. |There are millions of stars in space. ( not in the space) |
| |But: He tried to park his car but the space wasn’t big enough. |
|ABSENCE OF ARTICLES |
|Before abstract nouns used in a general sense: |Life, death, freedom, liberty, love |
|But, if the reference is made to certain abstract nouns, they are preceded by |The life of this child. |
|the. | |
|Before names of materials used in a general sense: milk, bread, snow. |NB. The coffee is very expensive. |
|Before plural nouns used in a general sense. |Books are silent friends. |
| |But: the books you lent me are very interesting. |
|Before names of meals used in a general sense. |We have breakfast at 7 o’clock every morning. |
| | |
|Before such nouns cook, nurse, teacher, gardener, milkman: when they have the |Teacher is going to give us a test today. |
|meaning “our cook/ teacher/ etc. | |
| |Monday is the first day of the week in our country. |
|Before names of days, months, seasons, holidays. |Phisics, Chemistry |
|Before names of subjects, sciences. |measles |
| | |
|Before names of illnesses. | |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. What kinds of articles are there in English?
B. Application
1. Give examples of proper nouns used with definite articles.
C. Integration
1. What does the article used before a noun depend on?
THE ADJECTIVE
The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
[pic]
|Meaning |Examples |
|One object has more of the quality named by the adjective than some other. |She is taller than her sister. |
|Than is often used after a comparative degree. |This task is more difficult than that one. |
|Much can come before the comparative to give emphasis. | |
| |Is Tokyo much more modern than London? |
|The greatest degree of the quality among the things being compared. |This is the highest building I have ever seen. |
| |It is the most wonderful party. |
|The objects are equal in the quality named by the adjective. |Peter is as tall as Nick. |
|One object has less of the quality named by the adjective than the other does. |Peter is not as tall as Nick. |
| |Jane is less beautiful than Kate. |
|The least degree of the quality named by the adjective. |This is the least interesting film I’ve seen lately. |
|Something is acquiring or losing a quality. |Your English is getting better and better. |
| |I am less and less satisfied with my job. |
|Comparative – denotes a higher degree of a|Superlative– denotes the highest degree|
|quality |of a quality |
|Short adjectives |cheap |cheaper |(the) cheapest |
| |small |smaller |(the) smallest |
|Adjectives of two syllables which end |happy |happier |(the) happiest |
|in |narrow |narrower |(the) narrowest |
|–y, -ow, -er, -le. |clever |cleverer |(the) cleverest |
| |simple |simpler |(the) simplest |
|Adjectives with two syllables or more |careful |more careful |(the) most careful |
| |interesting |more interesting |(the) most interesting |
|Irregular adjectives |good |better |(the) best |
| |bad |worse |(the) worst |
| |many, much |more |(the) most |
| |little |less |(the) least |
| |far |farther/ further |(the) farthest/ furthest |
| |old |older/ elder |(the) oldest/ eldest |
|Spelling rules |
|1. Short adjectives with one vowel + one consonant double the |hot |hotter |hottest |
|consonant. |fat |fatter |fattest |
|2. If the adjective ends in –y preceded by a consonant, y is changed|busy |busier |busiest |
|into i before –er, -est. |early |earlier |earliest |
|3. If the adjective ends in –e the e is dropped before –er and -est.|fine |finer |finest |
| |nice |nicer |nicest |
Morphological composition of the adjective
[pic]
|simple |They have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are indecomposable: |good, red, black. |
|derivative |They have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes, or both: |beautiful, foolish, unkind, etc. |
|compound |They are built from two or more stems: | |
| |a) noun-stem + adjective stem: |snow –white |
| |b) noun-stem + participle stem: |life – giving, smoke –dried |
| |c) adjective-stem + adjective stem: |deaf – mute |
| |d) adjective stem + noun-stem + suffix |cold – hearted |
| |- ed: | |
| |e) noun-stem + noun-stem + suffix - ed: |lynx – eyed |
| |f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix |four – wheeled |
| |– ed: | |
| |g) adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix |over - peopled |
| |– ed: | |
Classification of adjectives
[pic]
|Qualitative adjectives |They denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to |Little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, |
| |another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, |pink, strong, bold, beautiful, important, necessary,|
| |qualities of general estimation: |etc. |
| |Grammatical characteristics: | |
| |most of them have degrees of comparison: |big / bigger/ the biggest |
| |some of them have no degrees of comparison: |greenish, unsuitable |
| |they have certain typical suffixes, such as -ful, |careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, etc. |
| |-less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: |graceful – gracefully. |
| |from most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix –ly: | |
|Relative adjectives |They denote qualities of a substance through their relations to: | |
| |materials | |
| |place |silken, woolen, wooden |
| |time |Italian, Asian |
| |some action |monthly, weekly |
| |Grammatical characteristics: |preparatory |
| |they have no degrees of comparison: | |
| |they have certain typical suffixes, such as –en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical, : | |
| |they do not form adverbs with the suffix –ly: | |
| | |wooden, Italian, synthetic, etc. |
| | | |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of adjective.
B. Application
1. Give examples of qualitative and relative adjectives.
C. Integration
1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adjective in English and your mother tongue.
THE ADVERB
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or quality.
The function in the sentence: adverbial modifier.
[pic]
|Types of adverbs |Examples |
|simple |long, enough, then, etc. |
|derivative (suffix or prefix + word) |slowly, likewise, forward, etc. |
|compound |anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc. |
|composite |at once, at last, etc. |
|time |today, tomorrow, soon, etc. |
|frequency |often, seldom, never, sometimes, etc. |
|place and direction |inside, outside, here, there, upstairs, etc. |
|cause and consequence |therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc. |
|manner |kindly, quickly, hard, etc. |
|degree, measure, quantity |very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, quite, etc. |
Degrees of comparison
| | |comparative |superlative |
|An adverb of one syllable |fast |faster |fastest |
| |hard |harder |hardest |
|Adverbs ending in -ly |wisely |more wisely |most wisely |
| |beautifully |more beautifully |most beautifully |
|Irregular forms of comparison |well |better |best |
| |badly |worse |worst |
| |much |more |most |
| |little |less |least |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of adverb.
2. According to the structure adverbs are …
3. According to the meaning adverbs are …
B. Application
1. Give examples of time, frequency, place, cause and consequence, and manner adverbs.
C. Integration
1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adverb in English and your mother tongue.
THE PRONOUN
| |Types of pronouns | Examples |
| 1. |Personal |Subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they |
| |pronouns | |
| | |Object: me, him, her, It, us, you, them |
| 2. |Possessive pronouns |mine; his; hers; ours; yours; theirs |
| 3. |Reflexive pronouns |myself; himself; herself; itself; ourselves; yourselves; themselves |
| 4. |Reciprocal pronouns |each other; one another |
| | | |
| 5. |Demonstrative pronouns |this – these; that – those; the former; the latter; the first; the last; the same; such; such- and-such; suchlike; |
| | |one –ones. |
| 6. |Indefinite pronouns |all; both; much; many; more; most; little, few; a little; a few; another; the other; others; the others; either; |
| | |neither; each; everybody; everything; everyone; some; any; no one/ none; somebody; something; someone; anybody; |
| | |anything; anyone; nobody; nothing; enough; several; one |
| 7. |Interrogative pronouns |who; whom; whose; what; which |
| 8. |Relative pronouns |who; whom; whose; whoever; which; whichever; that; what |
|Types of pronouns |Explanations |Examples |
|Personal Pronouns |Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in the third person singular) | |
| |gender. | |
| |two cases: | |
| |a) the nominative case: |I, you, he, she, it, we, they |
| |b) the objective case: |me, you, him, her, it, us, them |
| |NB. If the pronoun is used as part of the subject, use a subject pronoun: |Eric and I are good friends. |
| |If it is part of the object, use an object pronoun: | |
| | |Ann met Eric and me at the museum. |
| |two numbers: | |
| |a) singular | |
| | |I, he, she, it, |
| |b) plural |we, they |
| |NB. you is both singular and plural | |
| |He, she, it distinguish gender | |
| | | |
| |a) Male beings (man, uncle, boy, etc.) are referred to as he: |Her husband asked only a few questions. He was a silent |
| |b) Female beings (woman, aunt, girl, etc.) are referred to as she: |man. |
| |c) Inanimate things (house, tree, cap, etc.) are referred to as it: |He turned and saw the girl. She was a pale, ethereal |
| |Functions: of subject, object, predicative. |creature… |
| | |Where’s your car? - It is in the garage. |
|Possessive pronouns|Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in the third person singular) |mine; his; her; ours; yours; theirs |
| |gender. | |
| |A possessive pronoun is used alone, without a noun following |Possessive pronouns |Possessive adjectives |
| |it. |I have mine. |I have my pen. |
| | |You have yours. |You have your pen. |
| |A possessive adjective is used only with a noun following it.|She has hers. |She has her pen. |
| | |He has his. |He has his pen. |
| |NB. The form its, although it may occur in some |We have ours. |We have our pens. |
| |constructions, is no longer used today being considered |You have yours. |You have your pens. |
| |obsolete. |They have theirs. |They have their pens. |
| | | |I have a book. Its cover is black. |
|Reflexive pronouns |Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in the third |I saw myself in the mirror. |
| |person singular) gender. |You saw (one person) yourself in the mirror. |
| |End in –self/ -selves. They are used when the subject (e.g., |She saw herself in the mirror. |
| |I) and the object (e.g., myself) are the same person. The |He saw himself in the mirror. |
| |action of the verb is pointed back to the subject of the |It saw itself. |
| |sentence. |We saw ourselves. |
| |Incorrect: I saw me in the mirror. |You (plural) saw yourselves. |
| | |They saw themselves. |
| |By + a reflexive pronoun = alone. | |
| | | |
| |Enjoy and a few other verbs and phrases are commonly followed| |
| |by a reflexive pronoun. |Greg lives by himself. (i.e. alone without family or roommates.) |
| | |Believe in, blame, cut, enjoy, feel sorry for, help, hurt, give, introduce, |
| |Functions: of prepositional object, predicative. |kill, pinch, be proud of, take care of, talk to, teach, tell, work for. |
| |Those verbs which describe actions that people do to | |
| |themselves ( to shave; to dress; to wash, etc.) do not | |
| |usually take reflexive pronouns: | |
| |With these verbs, reflexive pronouns are only used for |Jimmy usually shaves before breakfast. |
| |emphasis: | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |I prefer shaving myself to going to the barber’s |
|Reciprocal pronouns|The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another indicate that two people do | |
| |the same thing, feel the same way, or have the same relationship, that is the | |
| |feeling or action is mutual. | |
| |Each other generally implies only two people: | |
| | |He had never heard his father or his mother speak in an |
| | |angry voice to each other. |
| |One another generally implies more than two people: | |
| | |Seated in a row close to one another were three ladies – |
| |There are some verbs in English that describe processes which involve two |Aunt Ann, Hester, and Julie. |
| |people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other, having, | |
| |thus, a reciprocal meaning: |to argue, to hug, to compete, to kiss, to consult, to |
| | |marry, to embrace, to match, to engage, to meet, to fight,|
| |If, however, we want to emphasize that both participants are equally involved |to touch. |
| |in the action, we use each other or one another after the verb: |We kissed. |
| | | |
| | |We kissed one another. |
| | | |
|Demonstra-tive |This is used to point at what is nearer in time or space: |This is an interesting book. |
|pronouns |That is used to point at what is farther in time or space: |That was a serious problem. |
| |This – these; that – those may be applied to both persons and things. |This is a French girl. |
| |The former – the latter: these pronouns have the meaning of the first and, | |
| |respectively, the second of two. They have the same form for singular and |Ann and Janet are cousins: the former is a student, the |
| |plural: |latter is a pupil. |
| |The same is used as a: |Ann si Janet sunt verişoare: prima e studentă, a doua e |
| |demonstrative adjective |elevă. |
| | | |
| |demonstrative pronoun | |
| | | |
| |The same may also replace a whole sentence: |George learns in the same school as his friend. |
| | |I think the same about this. |
| |Such can be both a demonstrative adjective: | |
| |a demonstrative pronoun: |I drank a glass of milk and my sister did the same. |
| | |Have you ever read such stories? |
| | |Such is the present situation. |
| |Suchlike: | |
| | |We have never listened to suchlike songs. (adjective) |
| | |I don’t like books about love, romance and suchlike. |
| | |(pronoun) |
|Indefinite |All is a generalizing pronoun; it takes a group of things or people as a whole.|And Martin forgot all about it. |
|Pronouns |It may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute. | |
| |Both points out two persons, things or notions mentioned before. It may be used| |
| |as subject, object, prepositional indirect object, and attribute. |Both seemed to implore something to shelter them from |
| |Each and every refer to all the members of the group of persons, things, or |reality. |
| |notions mentioned before and taken one by one. They require a verb in the | |
| |singular. Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute. | |
| |Every is used only as an attribute. |They began to deal swiftly with the cocoa tins, slipping a|
| | |stick of dynamite in each.(prepositional indirect object) |
| |Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the group of persons mentioned |This is something more than genius. It is true, every line|
| |before or taken one by one. They have two cases: |of it. |
| |a) the common | |
| |b) the genitive | |
| |Functions of: subject, object, and attribute. |You walked into the waiting-room, into a great buzz of |
| | |conversation, and there was everybody; you knew almost |
| |Everything may be applied to things, animals, and abstract notions. It is used |everybody. |
| |as subject, predicative, and object. |He almost forgot the discomfort of being set up as a |
| |Either has two meanings: a) each of the two, b) one or the other. It is usually|target for everybody’s gaze. |
| |used as attribute or part of the subject. | |
| | | |
| |Other –others have two cases: |No one will see us. Pull down that veil and everything |
| |a) the common (other –others) |will be all right. |
| |b) the genitive(other’s –others’) | |
| |The other means the “the last one in a specific group, the only one that | |
| |remains from a given number of similar items”. It can be pronoun and adjective.|“Which book do you prefer?” |
| |It used as subject, object, and attribute. |“Either”. |
| | | |
| |Other(s) (without the) means “several more out of a group of similar items, | |
| |several in addition to the one (s) I have already talked about.” | |
| |The adjective other (without an –s) can be used with a plural noun or with the | |
| |word ones. | |
| |Others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not used with a noun. | |
| | |There are two apples on the table. Paul is going to eat |
| |The other(s) means “the last ones in a specific group, the remains from a given|one of them. Sara is going to eat the other.(pronoun) |
| |number of similar items”. |Sara is going to eat the other apple. (adjective) |
| |The other (without an –s) can be used as an adjective in front of a plural noun| |
| |or the word ones. |There are many apples in Paul’s kitchen Paul is holding |
| |The others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not used with a noun. |one apple. There are other apples (ones) in a bowl. |
| | |(adjective) |
| |Another means “one more out of a group of similar items, one in addition to the| |
| |one(s) I have already talked about”. |There are others on a chair.(pronoun) |
| |It may be used as subject, object, and attribute. | |
| | | |
| |Another can be used as an adjective in front of a noun or in front of the word | |
| |one. | |
| |Another can also be used alone as a pronoun. | |
| | |There are four apples on the table. Paul is going to take |
| |Somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have two cases: |one of them. |
| |a) the common |Sara is going to take the other apples. (ones) (adjective)|
| |b) the genitive |She is going to take the others. (pronoun) |
| |Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences. | |
| |Any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.| |
| | |There’s a large bowl of apples on the table. Paul is going|
| | |to eat one apple. If he is still hungry after that, he can|
| |Some, not any, is used in special and general questions expressing some request|eat another ( apple). There are many apples to choose |
| |or proposal. |from. |
| |Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of ‘every”. |There were two apples on the table. Paul ate one apple. |
| |Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in affirmative sentences. |Then he ate another one. (adjective) |
| | |Paul ate one apple. Then he ate another. (pronoun) |
| |Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative and interrogative sentences and | |
| |in conditional clauses. |Some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, |
| | |anything, one. |
| |Somebody, someone, something are used in special and general questions if they | |
| |express some request or proposal. | |
| |Anybody, anyone, anything may be used in affirmative sentences. Anybody, anyone|I’m sure some will agree. |
| |are used with the meaning of “everyone”; anything is used with the meaning of | |
| |“everything’. |Cats? I don’t have any. |
| |Some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything may be used |Do you see any? |
| |as: subject, object, attribute, predicative. |If you have any, show them to me please. |
| |One is used to avoid the repetition of a/ an + noun. | |
| | |Do you want some? |
| |None may be applied both to human beings and things. It can be used as subject | |
| |or object. It is opposite to the pronouns some, something, someone, all, | |
| |everybody, every, each. |Any are allowed to do it.. |
| |Nobody, no one refer to human beings. They are opposite to the pronouns | |
| |somebody, someone, all, everybody, every, and each. |There’s someone in front of our house. |
| |They are mostly used as subjects and objects. |I would like to say something. |
| |Nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the pronouns something and | |
| |everything. It may be used as subject, predicative or object. |I don’t want anything. |
| | |Is there anything you would like to tell me? |
| |Neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, both. It may be used as |If anybody comes, tell me please. |
| |subject, object, and attribute. | |
| | |Will someone help me? |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |“You’ve no business to say such a thing!” she exclaimed. :|
| | |Why not? Anybody can see it”. |
| | |...she sank in spirit inwardly as she thought of asking |
| | |for something to do – something that she could do – |
| | |anything. |
| | | |
| | |I forgot to bring a pen. Can you lend me one? |
| | | |
| | |None of us can hold on forever! |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |Nobody seemed to know him well. |
| | |We have no one to help us. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |Nothing can satisfy me more. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |Do you like any of these two cars? – I like neither. |
|Interro- |Are used to form special questions: |who; whom; whose; what; which |
|gative pronouns |Who has the category of case: | |
| |a) the nominative: who | |
| |b) the objective: whom | |
| |NB. There’s a tendency in Modern English to use who, instead of whom, as an | |
| |object. | |
| |Who refers to human beings: | |
| |What usually refers to things but it may be applied to persons when one | |
| |inquires about their occupation: |Who has watered the flowers? |
| | | |
| |Which has as elective meaning; it refers to an individual of the group. It may |“What are you looking for, Tess?” “Hairpins”, she replied.|
| |refer to persons or things. |“What was he?” “A painter.” |
| |Functions: subject, predicative, object, and attribute. | |
| | |“Which of us does he mean?” asked the boy. |
| | |Which side of the bed do you like, Mum? |
|Relative pronouns |Refer to somebody or something that has already been mentioned and, at the same|who; whom; whose; whoever; which; whichever; that; what |
| |time, join clauses together. | |
| |Who refers to persons. It is the subject of a relative clause: |The boy who is answering the teacher’s question is my |
| |Whom is the object of a relative clause, although, nowadays, the form who is |friend. |
| |also accepted: |This is the girl who(m) we met yesterday. |
| |Whose refers to persons, animals, and things. It shows who or what something | |
| |belongs to or is connected with. It must always come in front of a noun. |The woman whose hat is red is our neighbour. |
| | | |
| |Which always refers to things or animals and can be the subject or the object |Here was her own style- a bed which did not look like |
| |of a relative clause: |others. |
| |That may refer to either people or things and has the same form as the subject | |
| |or the object of a relative clause, or of a preposition: |The girl that you see is my sister. |
| | |On one side was a low wall that separated it from the |
| | |street. |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of pronoun.
2. Name the types of pronouns.
B. Application
1. Give examples of personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, relative, interrogative, indefinite, demonstrative pronouns.
C. Integration
1. Compare the types of pronouns in English and your mother tongue.
THE NUMERAL
[pic]
|Types of numeral | |Examples |
|Cardinal |Are used to refer to an exact number of things, etc. |0 - zero; 1 – one; 2 – two; 3 – three; 4 – four, 5 – five; 6 –six; 7|
| | |– seven; 8 – eight; 9 – nine; 10 – ten; 11 – eleven, 12 – twelve; 13|
| |Notes: |– thirteen; 14 – fourteen; 15 – fifteen; 16 – sixteen; 17 – |
| |The figure 0 can be written and pronounced in the following ways: |seventeen; 18 – eighteen; 19 – nineteen; 20 – twenty; 21 – |
| |Zero – usually used in American English, in mathematics, for |twenty-one; 22 – twenty-two, etc.; 30 –thirty; 40 –forty; 50 – |
| |temperature; |fifty; 60 –sixty; 70 – seventy; 80 – eighty; 90 ninety; 100 –one |
| |Nought – used in British English, in mathematics; |hundred; 205 – two hundred and five; 1,000 – one thousand; 1,325 - |
| |Oh – used when reading out long numbers, one figure at a time (e. g. |one thousand, three hundred and twenty-five; 1,000,000 – one |
| |telephone numbers, account numbers, etc); |million; 5,000,000 – five million; 1,000,000,000 - one billion. |
| |Nil – used to express scores in team games; | |
| |Love – used to express scores in tennis. | |
| | |1,987 – 1 987 |
| |Unlike most other languages, in English the numbers over 999 that are |2,513,608 – 2 513 608 |
| |written in figures get a comma or a blanc dividing the figures into | |
| |groups of three: | |
| |When the cardinal number contains a full stop, the number or numbers |7.25 (seven point twenty-five) |
| |that occur after the full stop indicate a fraction: | |
| | | |
| |When we write in words or say a number over 100, we must put and |102 = one hundred and two |
| |before the number expressed by the last two figures: |1120 = one thousand, one hundred and twenty |
| |But and is often omitted in American English: |129 = one hundred twenty-nine. |
| | | |
| |A is usually used before hundred, thousand, million when they stand |This watch costs a hundred dollars. |
| |alone or in informal English: |There were not more than a thousand people on the beach. |
| |and one in formal English or when these words are followed by other |One hundred and twenty-four. |
| |numbers: |One thousand and five. |
| | | |
| |The words hundred, thousand, million, dozen (= 12), score (=20) and |Two hundred years, five thousand books, |
| |gross (= 144) are never used in the plural when preceded by a definite|ten million people, three dozen books, |
| |number or by several, a few or a couple of: |ten score. |
| |But the words hundred, thousand, million, billion, dozen, score and | |
| |gross are used in the plural when they express an indefinite number or| |
| |are preceded by many: |Hundreds of girls, thousands of flowers, millions of people, scores |
| | |of letters |
| |Expressing Age |They sell in dozens and in grosses. |
| |We can express a person’s age in the following ways: |Many hundreds/ thousands/ etc. |
| |with the help of the verb to be followed by a number: | |
| |with the preposition of after a noun, followed by a number: | |
| |with the word aged after the noun, followed by a number: | |
| |with the help of a compound adjective, made up of a number followed by| |
| |a singular noun referring to a period of time, followed by the word |Tom is fifteen (years old). |
| |old. These words are hyphened: | |
| |with the help of a compound noun consisting of a number followed by |She was a girl of twelve. |
| |year old: | |
| | | |
| |If we want to refer to somebody’s age in an approximate way, we can do|He had a daughter aged fifteen. |
| |it in the following ways: | |
| | |A fifteen year-old boy |
| | |A two-month-old baby |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |We were met by Kerry, a pretty twenty-year-old. |
| | |All the seven-year-olds will go to school in September. |
| | |When Rosemary was in her teens, ... |
| | |The two men were both in their mid-fifties. |
| |Telephone Numbers |I think she is over fifty. |
| |Each digit of a telephone number is usually spoken separately except |All those present were under twenty. |
| |in the case of two identical digits occurring together, which are said|She is below the age of thirty. |
| |as “double three”, “double seven”, etc. The digits are spoken in |I’m sure he sisters are above the age of twenty. |
| |groups of two or three, with slight pauses between the groups. |The over-eighteens will be allowed to see this film. |
| | |The under-fourteens will not be given identity cards. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |142093 (one-four-two-oh-nine-three) |
| | |43338 (four-double three-three-eight)/ (four-three-double |
| | |three-eight) |
| | |NB. In American English, zero or nought is usually used instead of |
| | |oh |
|Ordinal |They are used to identify something by indicating where it comes in a |The first; the second; the third; the fourth; the fifth; the tenth; |
| |series of sequence. They are formed with the help of the suffix –th |the eleventh; the twelfth; the thirteenth; the twenty-first; the |
| |added to the cardinal numbers or their equivalents, except the first |twenty-fourth; the thirtieth; the one hundredth; the ten thousandth;|
| |three numbers which have irregular forms, and the compound numbers |the one millionth; the thirty-somethingth; etc. |
| |with which only the last figure gets its ordinal form. | |
| |They can also be written in abbreviated form: | |
| | |The 1st; the 2nd; the 3rd; the 4th; the 10th; the 21st; the 52nd; |
| |dates may be written in the following ways: |the 76th; |
| |But, when reading or speaking, the ordinal numbers must be used in all|April 1, 1946 1 April 1946 |
| |these cases. |April 1st, 1946 1st April 1946 |
| | |1st of April 1946 |
| |years: | |
| | | |
| | |1969 - nineteen hundred and sixty-nine, or nineteen sixty-nine. |
| | |2006 – two thousand and six |
| |titles of kings must be written in Roman numbers, but they are read | |
| |using ordinal numbers: |Charles I, Richard II, Henry VIII |
| | |Charles the First, Richard the Second, Henry the Eighth. |
|Multipli-cative |This numeral shows the proportion in which a quantity is increased: |Double/ twofold; threefold; fourfold; tenfold; hundredfold; etc. |
|adver-bial | | |
|Distributi-ve |It shows the distribution or grouping of objects: |One by one; two by two/ by twos/ in twos; ten by ten/ by tens/ in |
|adverbial | |tens; etc. |
|Adverbial |It shows how many times an action is performed. |Once; twice; three times; ten times; etc. |
| | |We sang that song twice. |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of numeral.
2. Name the types of numeral.
3. Which type of numeral is used to write dates years, telephone numbers, and age.
B. Application
1. Give examples of cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative adverbial, distributive adverbial, and adverbial numerals.
C. Integration
1. Compare the use of cardinal and ordinal numerals in English and Romanian.
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
|Characteristics |Examples |
|denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things. |But Johnny and Paddy were as1eep, the rose-red glow had paled, bats were |
| |flying, and still the bathers had not returned. |
| |"I'm afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal of the leaflet." |
|have the prefix a. |ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, awake. |
|are mainly used in the function of a predicative. |He is awake. |
|may be used as objective predicative. |She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely alone again. |
| |The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had fainted|
|may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be |in the drawing-room, and their two little children asleep upstairs were really |
|placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in |too big for the doll's house. |
|post-position: | |
|can be modified by adverbs of degree: |Sally had been half asleep with her head on Eddie's lap. |
|may take prepositional indirect objects. |I am ashamed of you. |
THE VERB
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.
A) The grammatical categories:
|Grammatical categories |Characteristics |Examples |
|person |In Modern English there are but few forms indicating person and number in the |a) the third person singular Present Indefinite |
| |synthetic forms of the verb. These are: |Indicative: He speaks. |
| | |b) the Future Indefinite Tense: I shall speak/ he |
| | |will speak |
|number | | |
|tense |It denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to |16 tenses in English |
| |some definite moment in the past or future. | |
|aspect |It shows the way in which the action develops, whether it is in progress or |Perfective – non-perfective |
| |completed. |Progressive – non-progressive |
|voice |It indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object. There |a) active |
| |are two voices: |b) passive |
|mood |It indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the |a) the indicative mood |
| |verb from the point of view of its reality. |b) the imperative mood |
| | |c) the subjunctive mood |
| | |d) the conditional mood |
B) Types of verbs:
|Types of verbs |Characteristics |Examples |
|transitive |Require a direct object, i.e. they express an action which passes on to a person | I’ve known these people for a long time. |
| |or thing directly. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, | |
| |to see, to show, to bring, to love etc. | |
| |There are other verbs which can be used either with or without a direct object, |I wrote (a letter) to him a month ago. |
| |such as to read, to write, to hear, to see. Usually, in this case the object is | |
| |clear from the context. | |
|intransitive |Cannot take a direct object. Here belong such verbs as to stand, to sleep, to |She shrank slowly away from him, and stood quite |
| |laugh, to think, to lie, to swim. |still. |
| |Note: | |
| |There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is|She sells books. (transitive) |
| |intransitive. Here belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc. |This book sells well. |
| |There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive and whose secondary meaning | |
| |is transitive. Here belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to run, etc.|Yesterday I walked far. (intransitive) |
| | |He walked the horse to and fro. |
| | |( transitive) |
|finite forms |Verbs may have finite forms - which can be used as the predicate of a sentence. |Hearing the noise, she opened the door. |
|non –finite forms |Verbs may have non-finite forms - which cannot be used as the predicate of a |Hearing the noise, she opened the door. |
| |sentence. | |
| |
|According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into: |
|simple | |Read, live, hide, speak |
|derived |Have affixes. |Magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose |
|compound |Consist of two stems. |Daydream, browbeat |
|composite |Consist of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin. |Sit down, come in, go out. |
| |
|According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into: |
|notional |Are those which have a full meaning of their own and can be used without any |Ricky surrounded her with great care and luxury. |
| |additional words as a simple predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, to |She knew what he was thinking. |
| |read, to speak, to know, to ask. | |
|auxiliary |Are those which have only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical |I don’t recollect that he ever did anything, at least not in |
| |forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, |my time. |
| |would. |Their father ... had come from Dorsetshire near the beginning|
| | |of the century. |
|link |Are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are |The house was big. |
| |used in the compound nominal predicate. |The old face looked worn and hollow again. |
| | | |
| |NB. In different contexts the same verb can be used as a notional verb and an |... She turned her head sullenly away from me. (notional |
| |auxiliary verb or a link verb: |verb) |
| | |She ... turned deadly pale. (link verb) |
|modal |Are a special group of verbs which cannot be used without additional words, |You must come on time. |
| |though they have a meaning of their own, such as can, may, must, ought, etc. |You should listen to her more attentively. |
| |The same verb in different contexts can be modal and auxiliary. |I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should |
| | |not be seen. (auxiliary verb) |
| | |I don’t honestly think Lady Crowan was exaggerating when she |
| | |said something should be done in your honour. (modal verb) |
| |
|According to their lexical meaning verbs are divided into: |
|terminative |Denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which it cannot go: to come, to |He went to the kitchen and brought him a cake and a |
| |bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, |plate of biscuits. |
| |to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to. | |
|durative |Denote a certain action which does not imply any limit: to live, to exist, to |He loved the Old Masters of painting. |
| |sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to | |
| |smoke, etc. | |
|verbs of double |In certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in others, a durative meaning: |He sat very still a moment. (durative) |
|lexical character |to stand, to kneel, to sit, to know, to remember, etc. |I went and sat beside him. (terminative) |
TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE
THE INDICATIVE
Table of tenses
| |Present |Past |Future |Future in the Past |
|Indefinite |I go to the theatre every week.|I went to the theatre last |I shall go to the theatre next |I said I should go to the |
| | |week. |week. |theatre next week. |
|Continuous |Don’t speak to him. He is |When I came, he was working. |Don’t come at 8. I shall be |He said he would be working at |
| |working. | |working. |8 o’clock. |
|Perfect |I have known him for two years.|When I came, he had already |By 2007 I shall have known him |I said I should have read all |
| | |left. |for twelve years. |the books by the first of |
| | | | |April. |
|Perfect Continuous |My hands are dirty. I have been|I was very tired. I had been |By the first of May I shall |I said that by the first of May|
| |working in the garden. |reading a lot. |have been reading the book for |I should have been reading the |
| | | |a fortnight. |book for a fortnight. |
1. The Present Indefinite
1.1 Form
Affirmative and negative
| |Positive |Negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |in Chisinau. |
|I |live |do not (don’t) live | |
|We | | | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
|He/ She/ It |lives |does not (doesn’t) live | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Do |I |
| |we |
| |you |
| |they |
|a fact which is always true. |Ice melts in the sun. |
| |My daughter has brown eyes. |
|a fact which stays the same for a long time. |He works in a bank. |
|sometimes in giving the summary of a story. |The prince decides to enter the cave. He enters the cave and there sees a |
| |witch. |
|an officially planned action or an action belonging to a settled program. |The championship starts next Saturday. |
|a future action | |
|a) in a conditional clause: |If you come tomorrow, we’ll go to the cinema. |
|b) in a time clause: |You will see your cousin when you come. |
|c) with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, to leave, etc. |The train leaves at 10.00 tomorrow. |
1.3 Spelling of verb + -s
|The normal rule is to add –s to the base form of the verb. |Wants, eats, drives, reads |
|Add –es to verbs that end in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x, z. |Kisses, washes, watches, fixes, buzzes. |
|Verbs that end in a consonant + y change to –ies. |Carry - carries, fly - flies, worry - worries, try - tries |
|NB. Verbs which end in a vowel + y only add –s. |Buys, says, plays, enjoys |
|A few verbs have irregular forms. |Be – is, are do –does |
| |Go –goes have- has |
1.4 Pronunciation.
|There are three different pronunciations for the final -s of the third person | |
|singular: |[s], [z], [iz]. |
|[s] after the sounds: [p], [t], [k], [f]. |Tops, gets, takes, laughs |
|[z] after the sounds [b], [d], [g], [v], [ ŋ], [m], |Describes, sends, hugs, lives, bathes, seems, remains, sings, tells |
|[n], [ð], [l], and [r], and all vowel sounds. | |
|[iz] after the sounds [s], [z], [∫], [t∫] [ ], [ ]. |Relaxes, freezes, rushes, massages, watches, judges |
|Do and say have a change in vowel sound. |Say [ ], says [ ] |
| |Do [ ], does [ ] |
2. The Present Continuous
2.1 Form
am/ is/ are + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
| |Positive |Negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |working. |
|I |‘ m (am) |‘ m not | |
|We | | | |
|You |‘re (are) |aren’t (are not) | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Am |I |
|an activity or situation that is true now, but is not necessarily happening at the |Don’t take that book. Jane is reading it. |
|moment of speaking. |I’m doing a French evening course this year. |
|a temporary activity. |I’m living with my friends until I find a place of my own. |
|a planned future arrangement. |I’m having lunch with Jane tomorrow. |
|a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct meaning of annoyance, |He is always borrowing money from his friends but never gives it back. |
|irritation, sarcasm. In this case the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as:| |
|always, constantly, continually, for ever. | |
|with verbs to get or to grow to express a transition from one state to another. |It is getting dark |
| |Our parents are getting older and older. |
2.3 Spelling of verb + -ing
|Add –ing to the base form of the verb. |going, wearing, visiting, eating |
|Verbs that end in one –e lose the –e. |smoking, coming, hoping, writing |
|NB. Verbs that end in –ee don’t lose an –ee. |agreeing, seeing |
|In verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant, the consonant is doubled. |stopping, getting, running, planning, jogging |
|NB. If the final consonant is –y or –w, it is not doubled | |
|Note: lie lying |playing, showing |
|2.4 Verbs not used in the Continuous |
|Verbs of thinking and opinion |Believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know, remember, forget, mean, imagine, |
| |realize, deserve, prefer, foresee, guess, mind, regard, suppose, trust, recollect. |
|Verbs of emotions and feelings |Like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit, abhor, adore, detest, please, dislike, displease. |
|Verbs of possession |Belong, have, hold, keep, owe, own, possess. |
|Verbs of senses |Look, hear, taste, smell, feel, notice. |
|Verbs of state/ condition |appear, be, consist, contain, differ, deserve, equal, exist, resemble, seem, suit. |
| | |
|NB. When the subject is a person, we often use can: |Can you smell something burning? |
|Some of these verbs can be used in the Present | |
|Continuous, but with a change of meaning. In the |I think you are right. (opinion) |
|Continuous, the verb expresses an activity, not a |I was just thinking what a long way it is. (mental activity) |
|state. |He has a new car. (possession) |
| |She’s having a bath. (activity) |
| |The tea tastes strongly of mint. (activity) |
| |I’m tasting the soup to see if it needs salt. (activity) |
3. The Past Simple
3.1 Form
verb + -ed
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
|I | | | |
|He/ She/ It |arrived | | |
|We |went |did not (didn’t) arrive/ go |yesterday. |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |I | | |
| |he/ she/ it | | |
|Did |we |arrive? |Yes, |
| |you | | |
| |they | | |
|I | | | |
|He/ She/ It |was |was not (wasn’t) | |
| | | |yesterday. |
|We | | | |
|You |were |were not (weren’t) | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |I |
|Was |he/ she/ it |
|if the verb ends in –e, add –d: |lived, loved |
|if the verb has only one syllable and ends in a vowel-consonant combination, the final consonant doubles. |stopped, planned |
|NB. cooked, seated, , moaned, because there are two vowels. | |
|The consonant is not doubled if it is y, x, or w. | |
| |played, mixed, showed |
|In most two-syllable verbs, the end consonant is doubled if the stress is on the second syllable. |pre`ferred, ad`mitted |
|NB. Exception is the final consonant –l. | |
| |traveled |
|verbs that end in a consonant + -y change to –ied: |studied, carried |
|NB. We write enjoyed , because it ends in a vowel + y. | |
3.3 Pronunciation
|-ed is pronounced in the following way: |
|[d] after [b, g, n, l, m, v, z, w, r, ŋ, ð] |opened [oupnd], answered [ans d] |
|and the vocalic sounds: | |
|[t] after [,f, k, p, s, ∫, t∫ ]: |worked [w kt], hopped [ ], published |
|[id] after [d, t ]: |lasted [ la:stid ], intend [ in tendid] |
3.4 Use
|The past Indefinite expresses: | |
|a past action that is now finished. |John left two minutes ago. |
|a succession of past actions. |He threw down his spade and entered the house. |
|repeated actions in the past. |He made an entry in his diary every night. |
|in conditional clause |If I were you, I would accept the proposal. |
|in time clauses |He promised me that he would tell me the truth when he knew it. |
3.5 The translation of the Past Simple into Romanian
|Perfect cmpus |When he opened the door, he saw the dog. |
| |Cînd a deschis uşa, văzu cîinele. |
|Perfect simplu | |
|Imperfect |The little boy was very tired. |
| |Băieţelul era foarte oboist. |
|Conjunctive perfect |Helen said that she felt lonely before she met him. |
| |Elena a spus că se simţea singură înainte să-l fi întîlnit. |
|Condiţional prezernt |I would read that letter if he gave it to me. |
| |Aş citi scrisoarea aceea dacă el mi-ar da-o. |
|Prezent |I didn’t know she loved music. |
| |Nu ştiam că-i place muzica. |
|Viitor |He girl said that she would come here when she was free. |
| |Fata a spus că va veni aici cînd va fi liberă. |
4. The Past Continuous
4.1 Form
was/ were + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |working. |
|I |was |wasn’t (was not) | |
|He/ she/ it | | | |
|We | | | |
|You |were |weren’t (were not) | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Was |I |
| |he |
| |she |
| |it |
|to describe a situation or activity during a period in the past. |Jane looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton dress. Her eyes were shining|
| |in the light of the candles that were burning nearby. |
|to show that two or more actions were going on at the same time in the past. |While mother was cooking, father was reading and grandmother was knitting. |
|to express an interrupted past activity. |When I returned, she was sweeping the floor. |
|to express an incomplete activity in the past in order to contrast with the |I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t finish it.) |
|Past Simple which expresses a completed activity. |But: I wrote a letter during the flight. ( the whole letter) |
|with always to express repeated action in the past which annoys the speaker. |These children were always laughing during my classes. |
|in conditional clauses. |What would you say if the boys were sleeping now? |
5. The Present Perfect
5.1 Form
have/ has + verb + -ed (regular verbs) have/ has + past participle (irregular verbs)
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |worked/ begun. |
|I | |have not (haven’t) | |
|We |‘ve (have) | | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
|He |‘s (has) |has not (hasn’t) | |
|She | | | |
|It | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |I |
|Have |we |
| |you |
| |they |
|to express an experience as part of someone’s life. |I’ve traveled a lot in Europe. |
|Ever and never are common with this use. |Have you ever been in a car crash? |
| |My mother has never flown in a plane. |
|to express an action or state which began in the past and continues to the |How long have you worked as a teacher? |
|present. | |
|For and since are common with this use. We use for with a period of time, and |We’ve lived here for two years. (a period of time) |
|since with a point in time. |I’ve had a beard since I left the army. (a point in time) |
|to expresses a past action with results in the present. |I’ve lost my wallet. (I don’t have it now). |
|when we are no longer interested in the time when the past action took place, |I have visited an interesting museum. (I still remember the things seen there).|
|but in its result into the present. | |
|to express completed activities in the immediate past. In this case, the verb |The train has just left. (I left a little time ago) |
|is generally accompanied by: just, lately, of late, lately, till now, up to | |
|now, so far, up to the present, during the last week the last too days, these | |
|twenty minutes, etc. | |
|with words denoting an incomplete period of time: today, this week, this month,|Last week we wrote three letters, but this week we have written only one. |
|this year, this night, this morning etc. | |
|to express a future action, in a time clause |I shall ring you up as soon as/ after mother has come back. |
6. The Present Perfect Continuous
6.1 Form
have/ has + been + verb + -ing
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |been |running. |
|I |have (‘ve) |have not (haven’t) | | |
|We | | | | |
|You | | | | |
|They | | | | |
|He |has (‘s) |has not (hasn’t) | | |
|She | | | | |
|It | | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |
|Have |
|The Present Perfect Continuous is used: | |
|to express an activity which began in the past and continues to the present, emphasizing |Mary has been watering the flowers for half an hour. (she is still |
|its duration in the present. |doing the job) |
| | |
|NB. Present Perfect implies that the attention is focused on the repetition or on the |Mother has watered the flowers. (Her job has just been done.) |
|completion of an action. | |
|to refer to an activity with a result in the present. |My hands are dirty because I have been working in the garden. |
|since the Present Perfect Continuous describes an action which is apparently |I have been drinking tea since 5’oclock. |
|uninterrupted, it will not be employed when we mention the number of times a thing has |But I have drunk three cups of tea since 5’oclock. |
|been done or the number of things that have been done. | |
7. The Past Perfect
7.1 Form
had + verb + -ed (regular verbs); had + past participle (irregular verbs)
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
|I | | | |
|He/ She/ It | | | |
|We |had arrived/ gone |had not (hadn’t) arrived/ gone |before 10.00. |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |I |
| |he/ she/ it |
|Had |we |
| |you |
| |they |
|to express duration up to a certain moment in the past: |By the time the rain started, we had cleaned the whole house. |
|often with just, already, hardly/ barely/ scarcely and no sooner, to show that |I had hardly/ scarcely/ entered the room, when somebody rang the bell. |
|the past action was finished a little time before another past action. | |
|to express a Past Conditional in a conditional clause: |I would have helped her if I had known. |
8. The Past Perfect Continuous
8.1 Form
had + been + verb + -ing
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
|I | | | |
|He/ She/ It | | | |
|We |had |had not (hadn’t) |been running. |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
| |I |
| |he/ she/ it |
|Had |we |
| |you |
| |they |
9. The Future Indefinite
9.1 Form
shall/ will + short infinitive
Affirmative and negative
| |positive | negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |in Chisinau. |
|I |shall/ will (‘ll) live |shall not (shan’t)/ | |
|We | |will not (won’t) live | |
|He/ She/ It |will (‘ll) live |will not (won’t) live | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Shall/ will |I |
| |we |
|When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. |Oh, I’ve left the door open. I’ll go and shut it. |
|in the following situations: | |
|a) offering to do something. |That bag looks heavy. I’ll help you with it. |
|b) agreeing or refusing to do something. |A. You know that book I lent you? Can I have it back? |
| |B. Of course, I’ll bring it back this afternoon. |
|c) promising to do something. |Thank you for the money. I’ll pay you back on Friday. |
|d) asking someone to do something. |Will you shut the door, please? |
|with these words and expressions: | |
|a) probably |I’ll probably be a bit late this evening. |
|b) sure |You must meet Ann. I’m sure you’ll like her. |
|c) expect |I expect Carol will get the job. |
|d) think |I think I’ll stay at home this evening. |
Going to – construction
Form
am/ is/ are + going + to + infinitive
Affirmative and negative
|I |‘ m (am) | |
| |‘ m not | |
| | | |
| | |going to work. |
|He | | |
|She |‘s (is) | |
|It |isn’t (is not) | |
|We | | |
|You |‘re (are) | |
|They |aren’t (are not) | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Am |I |
10. The Future Continuous
10.1 Form
shall/ will + be + verb + -ing (present participle)
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |be working. |
| | | | |
| | | | |
|I |shall/ will |shan’t (shall not)/ won’t (will not) | |
|We | | | |
|He/ she/ it | |won’t (will not) | |
|You |will | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Shall/ |I |
|Will |we |
|To indicate that an activity or state will extend over a whole future period. |John will be reading newspapers all day long. |
11. The Future Perfect Simple
11.1Form
shall/ will + have+ verb + -ed (past participle)
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |have read |the book by 10.00. |
| | | | | |
|I |shall /will |shall not/ will not | | |
|We | | | | |
|He/ She/ It |will | will not | | |
|You | | | | |
|They | | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Shall/ |I |
|Will |we |
|the duration up to a certain time in the future. |Next year Tom and Amy will have been married for 25 years. |
|possibility or assumption. |If Jack has taken a taxi he will have arrived at the concert in time. |
12. The Future Perfect Continuous
12.1 Form
shall/ will + have+ been + verb + -ing
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | | |
| | | | | |
| | | |have been reading |for two hours. |
| | | | | |
|I |shall /will |shall not/ will not | | |
|We | | | | |
|He/ She/ It |will | will not | | |
|You | | | | |
|They | | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Shall/ |I |
|Will |we |
13. The Future – In – The – Past Simple
13.1 Form
should/ would + short infinitive
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |live in Chisinau. |
|I |should/ would |should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t) | |
|We | | | |
|He/ She/ It |would |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I |
| |we |
14. The Future – In – The – Past Continuous
14.1 Form
should/ would + be + verb + ing
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |be sleeping. |
|I |should/ would |should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t) | |
|We | | | |
|He/ She/ It |would |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I |
| |we |
15. The Future Perfect– In – The – Past
15.1 Form
should/ would + have + past participle
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |have worked/ gone. |
|I |should/ would (‘d) |should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t) | |
|We | | | |
|He/ She/ It | | | |
|You |would (‘d) |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I |
| |we |
16. The Future Perfect Continuous – In – The – Past
16.1 Form
should/ would + have been + verb + ing
Affirmative and negative
| |positive |negative | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | |have been working. |
|I |should/ would (‘d) |should not (shouldn’t)/ | |
|We | |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|He/ She/ It |would (‘d) |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|You | | | |
|They | | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I |
| |we |
TENSES IN THE PASSIVE VOICE
THE INDICATIVE
Form
to be (different tenses) + past participle
Table of tenses
| |Present |Past |Future |Future in the Past |
|Indefinite |I am invited to the theatre. |I was invited to the theatre. |I shall be invited to the theatre.|I should be invited to the |
| | |(eram/fusei/fui/am fost |(voi fi invitat) |theatre. (voi fi invitat) |
| | |invitat) | | |
|Continuous |I am being invited to the theatre.|I was being invited to the | | |
| | |theatre. | | |
|Perfect |I have been invited to the |I had been invited to the |I shall have been invited to the |I should have been invited to |
| |theatre. |theatre. (fusesem invitat) |theatre. |the theatre. (voi fi fost |
| | | |(voi fi fost invitat) |invitat) |
Notice the passive infinitive: We’d love to be given this flat.
These books should be read by the end of this week.
Use
|Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of active sentences. The object of |Millions of people buy it. |
|an active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. |It is bought by millions of people. |
|Passive is not another way of expressing the same sentence in the active. We choose the active or | |
|the passive depending on what we are more interested in. In the first sentence we are more |Columbus discovered America. |
|interested in the person performing the action; in the second we want to show that we are more |America was discovered by Columbus. |
|interested in the receiver of the action. (i.e. America) | |
|Very often by and the doer are omitted. In this case: |My car was stolen last night. |
|the doer is unknown. |In silence the work was done. |
|the doer is unimportant. |Tom was sent off early, however, to a school in London. |
|we understand who the doer is. | |
|The passive is associated with an impersonal, formal style. It is often used in notices and |It has been noticed that reference books have been removed |
|announcements. |from the library. |
|In informal language, we often use you, we, and they to refer to people in general or to no person |We travel by train in this country. |
|in particular. In this way we can avoid using the passive. | |
|The same meaning is expressed in formal language using one. | |
| |One should dress to suit the occasion. |
|NB! Many past participles are used more like adjectives. |We are very worried about you. |
| |I’m exhausted! I’ve been working all day. |
|Only transitive and prepositional verbs are used in the passive. |The article is referred to. |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of verb.
2. Name the grammatical categories of the verb.
3. According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:
B. Application
1. Explain the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs.
2. Explain the common features of simple and continuous tenses.
3. Explain the common features of perfect and perfect-continuous tenses.
C. Integration
1. Compare the Active and Passive Voice.
MODAL VERBS
Form
|Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, need, ought to, dare, had better (to be able to, to have to) – modal verbs. |
|They are helping verbs that express a wide range of meanings: ability, permission, possibility, necessity, etc. Most of the modals have more than one meaning. |
|Characteristics |
|There is no –s in the third person. |He can speak English. |
|Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. |He needs a new car. |
|There is no auxiliary verb in the question. |May I ask a question? |
|Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. |He didn’t dare to meet his uncle. |
|There is no auxiliary verb in the negative. |I cannot speak English. |
|Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. |You don’t have to go there at 8 o’clock. |
|They are followed by an infinitive without to. |It might rain. |
|Exception: ought to, to be able to, to have (got) to, and sometimes need, dare. |Kate ought to study harder. |
|They don’t really have past forms or infinitives or –ing forms. Other verbs are used|I had to work hard when I was young. (trebuia) |
|instead. | |
|They can be used with perfect infinitives to refer to the past. |She must have been crazy to marry him. |
|Ability |Can |Bob can play the piano. |
|Can |The past is expressed by could. |Bob could play the piano when he was three. |
|Could | |I love being able to drive. |
|Be able to |Other forms are provided by be able to. | |
| | |The fire spread through the building very quickly but everyone|
| |Was able to or managed to (not could) is used to express a fulfilled |was able/ managed to escape. |
| |ability on one particular occasion in the past. | |
| | |We could have gone to the cinema last night, but we decided to|
| |Could + the perfect infinitive is used to express an unrealized past |stay at home. |
| |ability. Someone was able to do something in the past, but didn’t try | |
| |to. | |
| |Could can be used to criticize people for not doing things. We feel that|You could tell me if you are going to be late! |
| |they are not doing their duty. |You could have done something to help me instead of just |
| | |sitting there! |
|Possibility/ |Will and won’t are used to express what we believe or guess to be true |Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be cooked yet. |
|probability/ |about the present. They indicate an assumption based on our knowledge of|You’ve got a letter. – It’ll be from my aunt. |
|assumption |people and things their routines, character, and qualities. | |
| | | |
|Will |Must/ have to is used when you are almost 100 percent certain that |You must be joking. I don’t believe you. |
|Must |something is possible. The negative of this use is can’t. |She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter. She’s only twenty-five|
|Have to | |herself. |
|Should |May and might is used when you are less certain. They express | |
|May |possibility in the present or future. There’s no important difference | |
|Might |between them. |We may come very early. We don’t know exactly. |
|Could |Might is more tentative and slightly less certain than may. | |
|Couldn’t | |It might rain. Take your umbrella! |
| |Could has a similar meaning to might. It expresses present and future | |
| |possibility. The negative of could in this use is might not. | |
| | |There could be another rise in the price of petrol soon. |
| |Can’t/ couldn’t is used when you are almost 100 percent certain that |Jack might not be in his office. |
| |something is impossible. Couldn’t is only slightly weaker than can’t. | |
| | | |
| |Should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. Expectation |She couldn’t have a ten-year-old daughter. She’s only |
| |means believing that things are or will be as we want them to be. This |twenty-five herself. |
| |use of should has the idea of if everything has gone according to plan. | |
| |Use could in questions. We rarely use might and we never use may in | |
| |questions about possibility. |He should be home at the usual time. (if there’s no traffic |
| | |jam) |
| |NB. All the modal auxiliary verbs above can be used with the perfect | |
| |infinitive. They express the same varying degrees of certainty. | |
| |Will have done is the most certain. | |
| |Might/ could/ have done is the least certain. | |
| | | |
| | |Could he be at home? |
| | | |
| | | |
| | |I met a tall girl at your party. Very attractive. – That will |
| | |have been my sister, Nancy. |
| | |He may have got lost. |
| | |She didn’t answer. She might have been in the bath. |
|Permission |May, can, and could are used to ask for permission. |May I use your phone? |
|May | |Can/ could I go home? |
|Can |May, can can’t – to give permission. | |
|Could |May sounds very formal. |You can go. |
| |Can and can’t are more common. |You can’t smoke in here. It’s forbidden. |
| | | |
| |Can, could, or be allowed to are used to talk about permission | |
| |generally, or permission in the past. |Children can/ are allowed to do what they want these days. |
| | |I couldn’t/ was allowed to have a cookie. |
|Request |Can, could, will, would express a request. |Can/ could/ will/ would you please open the door? |
|Can Could |Could and would are more polite. |Yes. Of course./ I’d be happy to. |
|Will Would |NB. Do not use could and would to answer polite requests. | |
|Advice/ mild |Should, ought to, and had better have basically the same meaning. They |The children shouldn’t be playing. They should be at school. |
|obligation |mean this is a good idea/ this is good advice. | |
|Should, Ought to |Ought to is not usually used in the negative. |You ought to study tonight. |
|Had better | | |
| |Had better often carries a warning of bad consequences. It never refers |You had better not be late! If you are late, you will get into|
| |to the past. |a lot of trouble. |
| | | |
| |Should/ ought to/ could/ might + the perfect infinitive is used to refer|Hello, Ann. The party last night was great. You should have |
| |to a past action that didn’t happen. The action would have been a god |come. Why didn’t you. |
| |idea. The good advice is too late! |I ought to have taken that job. |
| | |(I didn’t take the job. That was a mistake) |
| | |She could have gone to a better school. |
| | |(She didn’t go to a good school. Now she regrets.) |
| | |You might have told me. |
| | |(You didn’t tell me. That was wrong.) |
| | | |
| | |He shouldn’t have missed the exam. |
| |Should not have/ ought not to have are the only forms used in negative | |
| |statements. | |
| | |Should I apply for this job? |
| |Use only should in questions. | |
|Obligation/ necessity |Must expresses strong/ important obligation. |You must try harder! I must be at the hospital at 2. It’s |
|Must | |most important. |
|Have to |Other verb forms are provided by have to. |You mustn’t hit your baby brother. |
|Need | |You will have to do this exercise again. |
| | | |
| |Must expresses an obligation imposed by the speaker. It expresses the |I must get my hair cut. (I’m telling myself) |
| |opinion of the speaker, his feelings. | |
| |Must is associated with a more formal, written style. |Candidates must answer three questions. (on an exam paper) |
| | |Books must be returned by the end of the week. (Instructions |
| | |in a library) |
| | | |
| |Have to expresses a habitual, repeated obligation. |I have to be at the hospital at 7 o’clock every morning. I |
| |Have to expresses an obligation imposed from the outside. It gives |begin work at 7.00. |
| |facts, not feelings. |I can’t meet you on Friday. I have to work. |
| | | |
| |Mustn’t expresses negative obligation. |You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty. |
| |Don’t have to expresses the absence of obligation. |You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English. |
| |Have got to is common in British English. It is more informal than have |I’ve got to go now. Cheerio! |
| |to. |Don’t have a late night. We’ve got to get up early tomorrow. |
| | | |
| |NB. Sometimes there’s no difference between must and have to. |I have to / must go now. |
| | | |
| |Need – which has two forms: regular verb and modal verb. As a regular | |
| |verb, it has the meaning to require, to be in the need of and it forms |He needs to hurry. |
| |the negative and the interrogative with the help of do/ did. | |
| |As a modal verb it means to have to. | |
| | | |
| |Didn’t need to shows that the action was not necessary and it was not | |
| |performed. |Need she get up early? – Yes, she must. |
| | | |
| |Needn’t have + Past Participle expresses an unnecessary action, which |I didn’t need to go at 8, so I didn’t. |
| |was, nevertheless, performed. | |
| | | |
| | |I needn’t have bought any eggs, because I had plenty. (but I |
| | |bought) |
|Willingness/ refusal |Will |I will not answer it. |
|Will Shall |Shall is used in questions. |Shall I shut the door? |
|Wouldn’t |Wouldn’t is used in the past. |Ann said she wouldn’t help him. |
|Indignation, reproach |Might/ how dare express indignation, reproach. |You might listen to me when I am talking to you. |
|Might/ | |How dare you interrupt me? |
|How dare | | |
|Supposition |I daresay – I suppose. |I daresay you are my neighbour’s brother. |
|Daresay | |If he is eight years old, he should be taller than your |
|Should |Should |daughter. |
| | |They should have finished their work by now. |
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of modal verbs.
2. What do the modal verbs express?
B. Application
1. Explain the common features of modal verbs.
C. Integration
1. Suggest another way of classifying the English modal verbs.
2. Compare the modal verbs that express ability, possibility, advice, and necessity.
MOODS
[pic]
THE IMPERATIVE
The imperative expresses a command, an order, an invitation, etc.
Form
|Singular |Affirmative |Negative |
|The 1st person |Let + me + Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let + me + Short Infinitive |
| |Let me repeat! |Do not let me repeat! |
|The 2nd person |Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive |
| |Repeat! |Don’t repeat! |
|The 3rd person |Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive |
| |Let Tom repeat! |Don’t let Tom repeat! |
| |Let the cat eat! |Don’t let the cat go! |
|Plural |Affirmative |Negative |
|The 1st person |Let + us (Let’s) + Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let + us + Short Infinitive |
| |Let us/ let’s repeat! |Do not let us repeat! |
|The 2nd person |Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive |
| |Repeat! |Don’t repeat! |
|The 3rd person |Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive |Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive |
| |Let the children repeat! |Don’t let them repeat! |
THE CONDITIONAL
The Present Conditional
Form
should/ would + short infinitive
Affirmative and negative
|I |should/ would | |
|We |should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t) | |
| | | |
| | |live in Chisinau |
|He/ She/ It |would | |
|You |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|They | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I | |
| |we | |
| | | |
| | |live in Chisinau? |
|He/ She/ It |would | |
|You |would not (wouldn’t) | |
|They | | |
Interrogative and short answers
|Interrogative |Short answers |
| |positive |negative |
|Should/ Would |I | |
| |we | |
| | | |
| | |have lived in Chisinau? |
|Type I |Future |Present |
|(open/ probable condition) | | |
|Such sentences express a condition that may or may not be fulfilled. |John will help you |if he has time. |
| |John te va ajuta |dacă va avea timp. |
|Type II |Present Conditional |Past Tense |
|( rejected/ improbable/ hypothetical/ unreal condition) | |(be – were) |
|The past tense in the conditional clause is not a real Past a tense, |John would help you |if he had time. |
|but a Subjunctive, indicating improbability or unreality. |John te-ar ajuta |dacă ar avea timp. |
|Type III |Past Conditional |Past Perfect |
|( impossible condition) | | |
|The conditional clause expresses something completely hypothetical, |John would have helped you |if he had had time. |
|and represents what is contrary to past fact. The Past Perfect |John te-ar fi ajutat |dacă ar fi avut timp. |
|indicates past unreality. | | |
Other Possible Variants of Tenses Rules Used in Conditional Sentences
|“IF” CLAUSE |MAIN/ REGENT CLAUSE |
|Present Tense |Present Tense |
|If you boil water, it turns to vapour. |
|Dacă fierbi apa, ea se transformă în vapori. |
|Past Tense |Past Tense |
|If he did that, he was courageous. |
|Dacă el a făcut aceasta, el a fost curajos. |
|Past Tense |Future Tense |
|If Jane didn’t manage to call yesterday, she will do it tomorrow. |
|Dacă Jane n-a reuşit să sune ieri, ea va suna mîine. |
|Present Perfect |Present Tense |
|If John hasn’t finished his homework, why is he playing? |
|Dacă John nu şi-a făcut temele, de ce se joacă ? |
|Present Perfect |Imperative |
|If you haven’t understood the instructions, read them again. |
|Dacă n-ai înţeles instrucţiunile, citeşte-le din nou. |
|Past tense |Imperative |
|If she didn’t read it yesterday, tell her to read it today. |
|Dacă n-a citit ieri cartea, spune-i să o citească astăzi. |
|Should + Infinitive |Imperative |
|If you should meet them, remind them of our appointment. |
|Dacă se întîmplă sa-i intîlneşti, aminteşte-le de întîlnirea noastră. |
|Present Tense (real condition) |Present Conditional (unreal action) |
|If you have a few hours to spare, I would invite you to the cinema. |
|Dacă ai cîteva ore libere, te-aş invita la cinema. |
|Past Tense (condition contrary to present fact) |Past Conditional (unfulfilled action in the past) |
|If she were a better singer, she would have participated in the festival |
|Dacă ar fi o cîntăreaţă mai bună, ar fi participat la festival. |
|Past Perfect (unreal condition in the past) |Present Conditional (the result of the condition in the present) |
|If he hadn’t had an accident, he wouldn’t be in hospital now. |
|Dacă n-ar fi avut un accident, n-ar fi în spital acum. |
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
- is used to express either a possible action, or unreality, improbability, that is something contrary to fact.
[pic]
Use/ Form
|The Synthetical Subjunctive |
|The Present Subjunctive is identical to the short infinitive. It occurs in formal, informal, and American English. It is used: |
|to express wishes or set expressions. |Long live peace! – Traiasca pacea! |
| |God forbid! – Fereasca Dumnezeu! |
|in subordinate that-clauses when the main clause expresses a desire, a demand, | |
|a requirement, an obligation, a necessity, etc. | |
|a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to suggest, to order, to | |
|demand, to urge, to recommend, to require, to propose, to arrange to: |They suggested that steps be taken to consolidate peace and security in Europe.|
|b) in subject clauses after such impersonal constructions as: it is necessary/ |– S-a propus luarea de măsuri pentru consolidarea păcii si securitaţii . |
|advisable/ possible/ impossible, etc. |It is necessary that your friend inform us of the decision. |
|c) in appositive attributive clauses. | |
|In conditional clauses. |There was a proposal that he be elected captain. |
| |If this rumour be true, we cannot stay here. |
|The Past Subjunctive is identical to the Past Tense of the verb. It is used: |
|in conditional clauses, to express a Present Conditional. |If I saw her, I would be glad. |
|after wish, it’s (high) time, as if/ though, even if/ though, would rather/ | |
|sooner, suppose (that). |He wishes he were in France now. |
|after it’s (high) time we can also use for + object + long infinitive. |He is singing as though he were a great artist. |
|It’s (high) time + for + object + long infinitive - it is the exact time for | |
|the action. | |
|It’s (high) time + Subjunctive – it is already a little late. | |
| |It’s (high) time for him to start learning a foreign language. ( it is the |
| |proper time) |
| |It is high time he started learning a foreign language. ( E de mult timpul) |
|The Past Perfect Subjunctive is identical to the Past Perfect of the verb. It is used: |
|in conditional clauses to express a Past Conditional. |If she had read the book, she would have answered my questions better. |
| | |
|after wish (to express a regretted action in the past), as if/ though and even |I wish(ed) I had been there too. |
|if/ though. |He talked as if he had seen her. |
|The Analytical Subjunctive |
|Shall/ should/ would/ may/ might/ could + Present/ Perfect Infinitive. |
|It is much more often used than the Synthetic Subjunctive. |
| |
|Shall + Infinitive is used: |
| |
| |
|in main clauses. |
|in subordinate clauses. |
|Shall I help you with your homework? |
|They have decided that you shall go there. (is not generally used in spoken English) |
| |
|Should + Infinitive is used: |
| |
| |
|in main clauses. |
| |
|in subordinate clauses: |
|a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to suggest, to insist, to demand, to propose, to command, etc. |
|b) in subject clauses after such impersonal constructions as: it is/was necessary/ impossible/ essential/ important, vital/ right/ advisable/ natural/ surprising,|
|etc. |
|c) in appositive attributive clauses. |
|d) in conditional clauses. |
| |
|e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by lest, for fear (that), in case. |
|f) concessive clauses introduced by though, although, whatever: |
|Why should they behave in this way? ( De ce-ar trebui ...) |
| |
|They demanded that the meeting should be held without delay. (Au cerut ca ...) |
| |
|It is necessary that they should come so early. (Este necesar ca ei ...) |
| |
| |
|There’s no reason why he should be late. |
|If he should come, tell him to wait. (Dacă vine cumva/ se intimpla să vina ...) |
|He hurried for fear he should be late. ( ... de frică să nu ...) |
|Whatever he should say, I don’t believe him. (ce n-ar zice ...) |
| |
|May/ Might + Infinitive is used: |
| |
| |
|in main clauses to express a wish. |
|in subordinate clauses: |
|a) subject clauses after such impersonal constructions as: it is/was possible/ probable/ likely, etc. |
|e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by that, in order that, so that. |
|f) concessive clauses introduced by though, although, however, whatever, no matter: |
|May you live long! ( Să traiesti mulţi ani!) |
| |
|It is possible that she may know the answer. (E posibil ce ea să ştie ...) |
| |
|She spoke clearly so that everyone might understand. (... aşa ca toţi să înţeleagă) |
|However tired he might be, he must come down and talk to us. ( Oricît de oboist n-ar fi ..) |
| |
|Would + Infinitive is used: |
| |
| |
|in direct object clauses after wish. (to express a wish for a future action which doesn’t have chances to be completed) |
|in subordinate clauses of purpose. |
|They wish we would pay them a visit soon. |
| |
| |
|She learnt a lot so that she would be able to pass the exam. |
| |
|Could + Infinitive |
|This construction is used to express purpose as an alternative to may/ might. |
|May/ Might + Infinitive is more formal. |
|Could + Infinitive has a higher degree of certainty. |
| |
| |
| |
| |
VERBALS
THE INFINITIVE
Form
| |Active |Passive |
|Indefinite |To write (a scrie) |To be written ( a fi scris) |
|Continuous |To be writing (a scrie) | |
|Perfect |To have written (a fi scris) |To have been written (a fi fost scris) |
|Perfect Continuous |To have been writing (a fi scris) | |
|A) The infinitive has verb characteristics: | |
|1. Tense: Present and perfect: |to go; to have gone |
|The Present Infinitive may refer to: | |
|the Present: |I want to go on a trip. |
|the Past: |I was glad to see your sister. |
|the Future: |I’ll tell her to read that book. |
|The Perfect Infinitive shows either that the action expressed by it | |
|precedes | |
|a past action/ moment: |She left too early to have met them. (ca să-i fi întîlnit) |
|or a future action/ moment: |He will want to have read this before he goes to bed. |
|or that it has a hypothetical meaning |I expected him to have understood us. |
|2. Voice: Active | |
|Passive |We hope to come tomorrow. |
|3. Aspect: Common and continuous |It is glorious to be loved. |
|B) The infinitive has noun characteristics. It has the function of: | |
|subject, direct object, predicative, attribute. |To doubt is almost to insult. (subject) |
| |At boarding school she learned to dance. (direct object) |
|C) The use of the infinitive without to: | |
|after modal verbs: |One cannot have what one loves. |
|Exception: ought |You ought to go earlier. |
|after verbs denoting perception: |I never saw you look so well before. |
|after to make and to let: |What makes you think so? |
|after had/would rather, had better, would sooner, better than, rather | |
|than, sooner than, more than, can (not) but, nothing but: |I had better go now. |
|D) Constructions with the Infinitive |
|1. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used: | |
|After verbs that express perception: to hear, to feel, to notice, to perceive, | |
|to see, to watch and after to let, to make, to have (to experience, to cause), |I heard the baby cry. |
|to have known. | |
|After verbs expressing volition: to want, to desire, to forbid, to intend, to | |
|demand, to wish: |I want you to come and dine with me. |
|After verbs expressing mental activities: to believe, to consider, to expect, | |
|to imagine, to know, to suppose, to think, to trust, to understand, etc.: | |
|After verbs expressing permission or a command: to allow, to command, to |Everybody expected her to marry Pete. |
|compel, to force, to oblige, to order, to permit, to urge, to warn: | |
|After verbs like: to advise, to appoint, to assist, to choose, to challenge, to| |
|convince, to enable, to persuade, to send, etc.: | |
| |He ordered his carriage to be ready early in the morning. |
|2. The nominative with the Infinitive is used: | |
|With the following verbs in the Passive Voice: to believe, to expect, to feel, | |
|to find (out), to hear, to imagine, to know, to notice, to perceive, to report,| |
|to say, to see, to suppose, etc.: |She advised me not to gossip. |
|With the following verbs in the Active Voice: to appear, to chance, to happen,| |
|to prove, to seem, to turn out, etc.: | |
|With such constructions as: to be lucky/fortunate/unlucky/unfortunate, to be | |
|certain/positive/sure, to be likely: | |
| |He was supposed to be a gifted doctor. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| |He happens to know English. Din întâmplare ştie Engleza. |
| | |
| |He is sure to be late as usual.(Sigur că are să întîrzie. ) |
THE GERUND
| |Active |Passive |
|Indefinite |writing |Being written |
|Perfect |Having written |Having been written |
Use
|A) The Gerund has noun characteristics: | |
|It can have a plural form. |I can’t understand his comings and goings. |
|It can have a Genitive form. |I didn’t like the idea of staying there |
|It can be preceded by a genitive or possessive adjective. |They disliked Jane’s smoking so much. |
|It can perform the function of: subject, object, predicative, attribute, |Her being late was noticed. |
|adverbial modifier. |Reading is her best relaxation. (subject) |
| |Have you given up smoking?(object) |
| |I don’t understand his way of behaving. (attribute) |
|B) The Gerund has verb characteristics: | |
|It may have tense: Present |I don’t mind her seeing me. (că m-a văzut ori m-a vedea) |
|Perfect |I don’t mind her having seen me. (că m-a văzut) |
|Voice: Active |He loves writing poems. |
|Passive |I don’t mind being seen by her. |
|It may have an object. |Singing folk songs is her greatest talent. |
|It may have an adverbial modifier. |This is worth doing well. |
|C) Use |
|To express prohibition |No Parking! |
|After such verbs and phrasal verbs as: to admit, to advise, to anticipate, to avoid, | |
|to begin, to consider, to continue, to delay, to deny, to detest, to dread, to |He avoided looking at Ann. |
|dislike, to enjoy, to escape, to excuse, to fancy, to finish, to forget, to forgive, |Forgive my speaking rudely! |
|to hate, to imagine, to intend, to involve, to go on, to give up, to keep (on), to |Give up smoking, please! |
|like, to love, to mind, to miss, to omit, to postpone, to practice, to put off, to | |
|recollect, to remember, to regret, to resist, to risk, to save, to start, to stop, to | |
|suggest, to try, to understand, etc.: | |
|After the following verbs with the prepositions: to accuse of, to aim at, to agree | |
|with, to approve of, to consist in, to count on, to dissuade from, to rely on, to | |
|result in, to succeed in, to think of, etc.: | |
|After be/get + adjective/Past Participle + preposition: to be afraid of, to be | |
|agreeable to, to be annoyed at, to be capable of, to be intent on, to be interested |They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. |
|in, to be responsible for, to be suitable for, to be surprised at, to be tired of, to |I insist on being treated with a certain consideration. |
|be/get used to, to be/ get accustomed to, etc: | |
|After such nouns with prepositions: apology for, art of, change of, disappointment at,|She was not pleased at my coming. |
|experience in, habit of, necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure of, |She was surprised at seeing me there. |
|necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure of, possibility of, reason for, | |
|skill in, surprise at, etc.: | |
|After there is, there was, it is no good, (it is) no use, it is useless, etc.: | |
| | |
|There are some verbs or nouns that can be followed either by the Gerund or by the |The art of letter writing is disappearing. |
|Infinitive: to begin, to cease, to continue, to start. |He is well known for his art in marketing. |
| | |
| | |
| |There was singing and dancing everywhere. |
| |No use buying it, it isn’t new. |
| | |
| | |
| |I began reading/to read an interesting book. |
THE PARTICIPLE
[pic]
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
| |Active |Passive |
|Indefinite |writing |being written |
|Perfect |having written |having been written. |
Use
|A) It has verb characteristics: | |
|It has tense and voice. |writing, being written, having written, having been written. |
|It can be modified by an adverb. |We are reading now. |
|It can have a direct or indirect object. |They are building a house. |
|It is used with to be | |
|a) to show simultaneous actions: |A boy passed by me carrying a box. |
|b) to show simultaneous actions |Frankly speaking, he is a smart man. (if we speak ...) |
|B) The participle has adjective characteristics: | |
|Sometimes it has degrees of comparison. |She is more amusing than I thought. |
|It can have the functions of attribute and predicative: |This is no laughing matter. |
| |The effect of her words was terrifying.... |
|C) The participle has adverb characteristics: | |
|It modifies an adjective: |It is raining cold. |
|It has the function of adverbial modifier: |When going to school, he met his friend. |
|D) Participial Constructions |
|1. The Accusative with the Participle is used: |I can smell something burning. |
|after verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to listen, to see, to observe, to| |
|notice, to smell, etc. |I found her reading a book. |
|after to catch, to find, to imagine, to keep, to leave, to start, etc. | |
|2. The Nominative with the Participle is used: |She was heard speaking English. |
|with verbs of perception in the passive: | |
|3. The Absolute Nominative |The door being open, we looked in. |
|In this construction the Present Participle is used independently from the | |
|predicate of the sentence and its subject is different from the subject of the| |
|sentence: | |
|4. The Absolute Participle |Frankly speaking, he is right. |
|The Present Participle that occurs in this construction has no subject: | |
THE PAST PARTICIPLE
Form: translated, broken, read.
Use
|as an adjective |a locked door, a written letter |
|as part of the perfect forms of the verb |I have already made a mistake. |
|as part of the Passive Voice |It is said that you are a liar. |
|its functions in the sentence: attribute, adverbial modifier, predicative, part|They were into a large room lit up with Chinese lamps. (attribute) |
|of a complex object. |In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (predicative) |
THE MODAL WORDS
The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability the action he speaks about.
|Characteristics |Examples |
|According to their meaning modal words express: | |
|a) certainty: |Certainly, surely, of course, no doubt, apparently, etc. |
|b) supposition: |Perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc. |
|c) whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or |Happily – unhappily, luckily – unluckily, fortunately – unfortunately. |
|undesirable: | |
|In the sentence they are used as parentheses: |Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. |
|Most of them have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal |Certainly, surely, happily (which are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, |
|identity between modal words and adverbs: |surely, happily) |
THE INTERJECTION
The interjection is the part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
[pic]
|Types of interjections|Characteristics |Examples |
|emotional |Express the feelings of the speaker. |Ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc. |
| | |Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To |
| | |let” (sorrow). |
| | |Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty without a little ill nature. |
| | |(contempt) |
|imperative |Show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the |Here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc. |
| |hearer. |Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going. (protest) |
|primary |Are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are |Ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, etc. |
| |simple words. | |
| |Only a few primary interjections are composite. |Heigh – ho, hey – ho, holla – ho, gee – ho. |
|secondary |Rederived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous |Well, now, here, there, come, why, dear me, hang it, etc. |
| |with the words they are derived from. | |
THE PREPOSITION
The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
[pic]
|simple |derivative |compound |composite |place and direction |time |abstract relations |
|In, on , at, for, |Behind, below, across, |Inside, outside, within, |Because of, in front |In, on , below, under, |After, at, before, |By, with, because of, |
|with, etc. |along, etc. |without, etc. |of, in accordance with,|etc. |etc. |with a view to, etc. |
| | | |etc. | | | |
Prepositions in time expressions
|at |in |on |no preposition |
|at six o’clock |in the morning/ afternoon/ evening |on Saturday |today |
|at noon/ midnight/ night |in December |on Monday morning |yesterday |
|at Christmas |in summer |on Christmas Day |tomorrow |
|at the weekend |in 1995 |on January 18 |the day after tomorrow |
| |in two weeks’ time |on holliday |the day before yesterday |
| | | |last night |
| | | |last week |
| | | |two weeks ago |
| | | |next month |
| | | |yesterday evening |
| | | |tomorrow evening |
| | | |this evening |
| | | |tonight |
Prepositional Constructions that Present Difficulties
|On time – in time |
|On time |At exactly the right time. |Our English class always starts on time. |
|In time |Early, soon enough for something. |We got to the station in time. (before the train left) |
| |
|At the end - in the end |
|At the end |At the point when something stops. |We are going on a trip at the end of this week. |
|In the end |Finally, at last. |At thirst, we didn’t understand that exercise, but in the end we|
| | |could do it. |
| |
|As – like |
|As |Refers to a job, role or a function of someone or something. |She works as a teacher. (She really is a teacher.) |
|Like |When we make comparisons. |She is talking like a teacher. (She is not a teacher) |
| | | |
| | |We are spending this weekend as/like we usually do. |
| |NB. Either as or like can be used before a clause that means “in the | |
| |same way”: | |
| |
|Before - in front of |
|Before |It is used with dynamic and static verbs meaning before one reaches. |He was sitting before us. |
|In front of |Refers to position and often presupposes a surface. |The tree in front of my house is a chestnut – tree. |
| |
|Between – among |
|Between |Is usually used for two objects, clearly distinct from the others. |She was sitting between the table and the chair. |
|Among |Refers to a mass, a crowd, or a group, a collection of things which |We saw a house hidden among the trees. |
| |do not see separately. | |
| |The verbs to divide and to share are followed by between when used |She shared her property between her brother, her son and her |
| |with several singular nouns. |daughter. |
| |
|Of – from – with + made |
|Of |When the materials can be recognized clearly. |Made of iron/ plastic/wood |
|From |When the ingredients are not obvious. |The ice-cream is made from cream, sugar and lemon. |
|With |When we try to identify one or more of the ingredients. |This chocolate is made with milk. |
| |
|Arrive in – arrive at |
|Arrive in |A country or town. |They arrived in England/ Paris last week. |
| | |Not: arrived to England. |
|Arrive at |Other places. |Arrive at the station, at work, at the hotel. |
| | |NB. arrive home |
| |
|In the corner – on the corner – at the corner |
|In the corner |When the corner is inside something. |In the corner of a room, triangle, square. |
|On the corner |When there’s no enclosure. |There’s a lamp on the corner of our road. |
|At the corner |Can be used for either. | |
| |
|In a photograph/ picture – on a photograph/ picture |
|In a photograph/ picture |For the persons/ things portrayed in the picture or photograph. |Are you in this photograph? |
|On a photograph/ picture |For something which is not part of it, but only on its surface. |There’s some dust on this photograph. |
| |
|To –in denoting direction |
|To |Denotes position in relation to a country or city. |Hungary is to the west of Romania. |
| | |Iasi is to the north-east of Bucuresti. |
|In |Denotes position within that country or city. |Iasi is in the north –east of Romania. |
| | |Transylvania is in the north of Romania. |
| |
|At – in |
|At |Is preferred with names of buildings and institutions, with villages |I was educated in Cluj-Napoca at Babes –Bolyai University. |
| |and small towns. | |
|In |Is used with names of countries, provinces, cities. |He lives in Italy. |
The Difference between English and Romanian Prepositions
|English |Romanian |English |Romanian |
|In the playground |Pe terenul de joc |In the sky |Pe cer |
|In the sun |La soare |In the open air |La aer curat |
|On the way to |În drum spre |On the first floor |La etajul I |
|Round the corner |După colţ |At present |În prezent |
|At the same time |În acelaşi timp |At this moment |În acest moment |
|In a year’s time |Peste un an |In my opinion |După parerea mea |
|In English |Pe englezeşte |Word for word |Cuvînt cu cuvînt |
|By my watch |După ceasul meu |By mistake |Din greseală |
|To look out of the window |A privi pe fereastră |To get in through the window |A intra pe fereastră |
|On fire |În flăcări |In the reign of |Sub domnia lui |
|Wild with happiness |Nebun de fericire |Drenched to the skin |Udat pîna la piele |
|A lesson in English |O lecţie de Engleză |A professor in the University |Profesor la Universitate. |
THE CONJUNCTION
The conjunction is a word that connects sentences, clauses or words with the same syntactical function.
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|Type |Characteristics |Examples |
|Simple | |and, but, if, that. |
|Compound | |however, notwithstanding, otherwise, unless. |
|Correlative | |as... as; both... and; either... or; neither... nor; not only... but also; |
| | |whether... or. |
|Conjuncti-onal phrases| |as well as...; as if/though...; for that reason...; for instance...; in order |
| | |that/to...; that is why...; so long as. |
|Coordinate |copulative conjunctions - imply that something or |and; and... as well; as well as; besides; both...and; further; furthermore; no |
| |somebody is added to something or somebody else. |less than; neither... nor; not... either; not... but also; not only... but... too;|
| | |She opened the door and went inside. |
| | |If you go, I'll go as well. |
| |adversative conjunctions – express a contrast. |but; whereas; while. |
| | |He's tall whereas I am short. |
| |disjunctive conjunctions - express an alternative. |or; else; or else; otherwise; either... or. |
| | |Take this taxi; else you will miss the train. |
| | |She must either go now or stay. |
| |causative-consecutive conjunctions – denote |so; for; accordingly; consequently; on that account; hence; so; then; that is why;|
| |consequence, result, or reason. |therefore. |
| | |My sister has a headache. So, she can't come with us. |
| | |The teacher didn't explain that problem clearly; consequently we didn't understand|
| | |it. |
|Subordinate |connect subordinate clauses with their corresponding |that; what; who; which; whoever; whatever; whichever; when; how; why; where; |
| |regent sentences or clauses. Some of such |whosoever; if; whether. |
| |conjunctions introduce only certain clauses | |
| |(although/though - concessive clauses; as if/though -|Who will be captain of the team has not yet been decided. (subj. clause) |
| |comparison clauses; etc.), others can introduce |The woman whose hair is grey is our grandmother. (attributive clause) |
| |several types of clauses (that – |Before you go, you must finish your job. (adverbial clause of time) |
| |object/subject/predicative/at-tributive clauses; if -| |
| |conditional/direct object clauses etc.). They can | |
| |also be introduced by relative adverbs or relative | |
| |pronouns which play the part of a conjunction. | |
THE PARTICLE
The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses.
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|Types of particles: | |Examples |
|limiting |Only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, |I only wanted to make you speak. |
| |barely, etc. |Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband? |
|intensifying |Simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, |He just did dislike him. |
| |quite, even, etc. |They did not even know that he was married. |
|connecting |Too, also. |He was silent. Soames, too, was silent. |
| | |Higgins takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in. He also takes off his hat and |
| | |overcoat. |
|negative |Not, never. |No, he was not afraid of that. |
| | |I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. |
PART II: SYNTAX
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
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|Types of sentence |Characteristics |Examples |
|the declarative sentence |States a fact in the affirmative or negative form |He was born in 1962. |
|the interrogative sentence: |a) general questions: |Do you like art? |
| |b) special questions: |Where do you live? |
| |c) alternative questions: |Do you live in town or in the country? |
| | |You speak English, don’t you? |
| |d) disjunctive questions: | |
|the imperative sentence |Induces a person to do something, so it expresses a command, a request, an |Stop talking! |
| |invitation, etc. | |
|the exclamatory sentence |Expresses some kind of emotion or feeling |What a lovely day it is! |
|two-member sentence |it has two members: a subject and a predicate (if one of them is missing it|She had established immediate contact with an |
| |is easily understood from the context). It can be: |architect. |
| |a) complete when it has a subject and a predicate: | |
| |b) incomplete: (when one of the principal parts or both of them are | |
| |missing, but can be easily understood from the context – they are called: |I met her yesterday. |
| |elliptical): | |
| | |Who does it for you? James, of|
| | |course. |
| | |Where were you yesterday? At the cinema. |
|a one member-sentence: |it has only one member which is neither the subject, nor the predicate |Dusk – of a summer night. |
| |it is generally used in descriptions and emotional speech | |
| |the main part is often expressed by: | |
| |1) noun (sometimes modified by attributes) |To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at |
| |2) infinitive |that price. |
| | | |
|unextended |consists only of the principal parts: | She is a student. |
| | |Winter! |
|extended |consists of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts: |They visited me yesterday. |
QUESTIONS
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|Types of questions |Characteristics |Examples |
|General |require the answer yes or no. |Do you have classes on Saturday? |
| | |Are you well today? |
|Special |begin with an interrogative word. |Who is Cher? |
| | |How do people communicate? |
|Alternative |indicate choice. |Do you have English on Monday or on Tuesday? |
|Disjunctive |require the answers yes or no and consist of an affirmative statement |You are Jenny, aren’t you? |
| |followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an |It isn’t a very nice day, is it? |
| |affirmative question. | |
| |we repeat the auxiliary verb in the question. | |
| | |You haven’t been here before, have you? |
| |NB. If there’s no auxiliary we use: do, does, did. |She bought this book, didn’t she? |
| | |You can speak French, can’t you? |
| |If we have modal verbs, we repeat them in the question. |You’re coming, aren’t you? |
| |Notice the meaning of yes and no in answer to question tags. |Yes. (I am coming.) |
| | |No. (I’m not coming.) |
THE MAIN PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE SUBJECT
|Ways of expressing the subject: |Examples |
|a noun in the common (or occasionally possessive) case |The teacher brought a map. |
| |Ada’s is a noble heart. |
|a pronoun (personal, demonstrative, indefinite, possessive, interrogative) |That set me thinking of my plan of action. |
| |All were happy. |
| |Hers is not a very successful plan called me. |
|a substantivized adjective or participle |The wounded were taken good care of. |
|a numeral (cardinal or ordinal) |The two were quite unable to do anything. |
| |The fist stood in front of him. |
|an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction |To live is to work. |
| |To be a rich man is not always roses and beauty. |
|a gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction |Lying doesn’t go well with me. |
| |Winning the war is what counts. |
|any part of speech used as a quotation |On is a preposition. |
|a group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically |The needle and thread is lost. (here the subject represents one person). |
|indivisible group. |Their friend and defender is darkly groping towards the solution. |
It as the subject of the sentence
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|Type of subject |Characteristics |Examples |
|notional |it represents a living being or a thing and has the following characteristics: | |
| |stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea – the personal it: | |
| |points out a person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the |The door opened. It was opened by a young girl. |
| |thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning – the |It is John. |
| |demonstrative it: |It was a large room with a great window. |
| | |Dick came home late, it provoked his father. |
|formal |it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish: | |
| |a) the impersonal it, which is used to denote: | |
| |natural phenomena or that which characterizes the environment. |It is cold in winter. |
| |to denote time and distance: |It is delightfully quiet in the night. |
| |b) the introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject: | |
| |c) the emphatic it is used for emphasis: |It is morning already. |
| | |It was curious to observe that child. |
| | |It was he who had brought the book. |
THE PREDICATE
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|Type of predicate |Expressed by:/ characteristics |Examples |
|The simple |a finite verb in a simple or compound tense form |Yesterday, Ann arrived home late. |
|predicate | |My dear I have been looking for you everywhere. |
| |a phraseological unit: to get rid, to take care, to pay attention, to lose | |
| |sight, to make fun, to take care, to take part, to have a swim, to have a | |
| |run, to give a laugh, to give a push, to take a look, etc. | |
| |a) a finite verb which lost its concrete meaning + a noun mostly used with | |
| |the indefinite article | |
| | |Burton gave a kindly little chuckle. |
| |b) a finite verb + abstract noun without article | |
| | | |
| |NB. The characteristic feature of this predicate is that the finite verb | |
| |has lost its concrete meaning to a certain extent and forms one unit with |Then we got rid of such inconveniences. |
| |the noun, consequently the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb.| |
| |It is impossible to put a question to the second component. |C o m p a r e: |
| | |My friend gave me an interesting book to read. |
| | |The man gave a violent start. |
|The compound |consists of two parts: | |
|predicate |a) a finite verb + b) some other part of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an | |
| |adjective, a verbal, etc. | |
|The compound |link verb + predicative. |He grew more cheerful. |
|nominal predicate |it denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the | |
| |subject. | |
|The compound |It is of two types: | |
|verbal |1. the compound verbal modal predicate | |
|predicate |2. the compound verbal aspect predicate | |
|The compound |shows whether the action is possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, | |
|verbal modal |desirable, etc. It consists of: | |
|predicate |a modal verb and an infinitive. |You can prove everything and nothing. |
| | |The operation was to take place in the capital of the |
| |modal expressions: to be + Infinitive, to have + infinitive. |city. |
| | |I have to work for my living. |
| | | |
| |a verb with a modal meaning ( to hope, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to|He wanted to throw himself into the whirlpool of Paris.|
| |try, to endeavor, to long, to wish, to want, to desire, etc.) and an |He tried to open the tin with a pocket knife. |
| |infinitive or a gerund. | |
| | |I am going to leave Paris. |
| |modal expressions ( to be able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be willing, | |
| |to be anxious, to be capable, to be going) and an infinitive. | |
|The compound |consists of such verbs as: to begin, to start, to commence to fall, to set |His bones ceased to ache. |
|verbal aspect |about, to go on, to keep on, to proceed, to continue, to stop, to give up, | |
|predicate |to finish, to cease, to come and an infinitive or gerund. | |
| |Would and used + Infinitive, which express a repeated action in the past, | |
| |also belong here. | |
| | |I used to write poetry myself when I was his age. |
|Mixed types of |the compound modal nominal predicate. |He greatly longed to be the next heir himself. |
|predicate: | |I continued to be glad for that. |
| |the compound aspect nominal predicate. | |
| | |I had to begin living all over again. |
| |the compound modal aspect predicate. | |
NB.
|The link verbs and their characteristics |Examples |
|have partly lost their original concrete meaning: to appear, to get, to grow, to continue, to feel, to |The nightmare of my life had come true. (link verb)|
|keep, to look, to turn, to hold, to prove, to turn out, to loom, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to |Giles and Beatrice were coming for the night. (verb|
|smell, to taste, to fall, to stand, to go, to work. Many of these verbs can be used both as verbs of |of complete prediction) |
|complete predication fully preserving their concrete meaning and as link verbs: to be, to grow, to look, | |
|to feel, to come, to go. | |
|There are some verbs which, though fully preserving their concrete meaning, perform the function of link |The poor man sat amazed. |
|verbs: to lie, to sit, to die, to marry, to return, to leave, to come, to stand, to fall, to go, etc. |Tome went home miserable. |
|They are used with a predicative. According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into two large | |
|groups: | |
|a) link verbs of being and remaining: to be, to remain, to keep, to continue, to look, to smell, to | |
|stand, to sit, to lie, to shine, to seem, to prove, to appear, etc. |He was a nice-looking man of thirty perhaps... |
|b) link verbs of becoming: to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, to leave, to run, to turn, to | |
|make, etc. |... he grew handsomer and more interesting. |
|The predicative is expressed by: |Examples |
|a noun in the common case, occasionally by a noun in the possessive case. |She is a pretty child. |
|an adjective |He’s awfully dear and unselfish. |
|a pronoun – personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, reflexive, indefinite, |It was he. You are nobody. What is he? |
|defining. | |
|a word of the category of state: |He was aware of the state in which he was. |
|a numeral, cardinal or ordinal. |I’m only 46. |
| |He was the first to break the dead silence. |
|a prepositional phrase: |The things were outside her experience. |
|an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction. |June’s first thought was to go away. |
| |His first act was to bolt the door on the inside. |
| |The best thing is for you to move in with me. |
|a gerund, gerundial phrase, or gerundial construction. |My favorite sport is swimming. |
| |The topic of their conversation was their going on an expedition. |
|Participle II or very seldom Participle I; the latter is generally adjectivized. |He was surprised at the sound of his voice. |
| |The moment was soothing to his sore spirit. |
|an adverb. |It was enough the way she said it. |
AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
|a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural |This girl speaks English. |
|verb: |These girls speak English. |
|Collective nouns may be followed either by a singular verb or a plural one. |My family is called Smith. |
|When such a noun is regarded as a whole it takes a singular verb: | |
|But when it is thought of as a group of individuals, it takes a plural verb: | |
| | |
|However, such collective nouns as: cattle, clergy, people, police, public are|My family are at home. |
|always followed by a plural verb. | |
| |The cattle were gazing in the field. |
| |The police are investigating the case. |
|Two singular subjects connected by either... or; neither ... nor; not only |Either the boy or the girl knows the answer. |
|... but also; no less than ... ; and not are followed by a singular verb: | |
|But when one subject is singular and the other one plural, the “rule of | |
|proximity” must be observed: | |
| |Neither the teacher nor the pupils are in the classroom. |
| |Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the classroom. |
|Two or more subjects connected by and take a plural verb: |The dog and the cat are under the table. |
|However, when the two subjects are regarded as a whole, a “single idea”, they| |
|are followed by a singular verb: |Fish and chips is a traditional English food. |
| |Whisky and soda is Tim’s favourite drink. |
| |My neighbour and friend comes here every day.(one person) |
| |My neighbour and my friend come here every day.(two different persons) |
|Nouns denoting units of measurement take a singular verb when they are |Fifty pounds is a lot of money. |
|preceded by a numeral: |Five years is a long time. (= period) |
| |Twenty miles is a long distance. |
|A singular noun proceeded by each, either, ever, or neither takes a singular |Each boy tells us a joke. |
|verb. |Either book is interesting. |
| |Every student knows this answer. Neither solution was good. |
|When a plural noun is preceded by neither of, it can be followed either by a |Neither of the girls lives/live in this house. |
|singular or a plural verb: | |
|The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are used in the plural whenever they |Many people lost their lives in World War II. |
|refer to more than one person: | |
|When the “formal subject” of a sentence is there, the predicate must agree |There’s a book on the table. |
|with the “real subject”: |There are many trees in the garden. |
|The noun number takes a singular verb when it is preceded by the definite |The number of mistakes is very large. |
|article the and a plural verb when it is preceded by a: |A number of people were waiting for me. |
|When the pronoun it is used in identifying or emphatic constructions, it is |It is these boys who broke my window. |
|followed by a singular verb: | |
|Singularia Tantum nouns (advice; information; furniture; damage; luggage; |Your information is very interesting. |
|knowledge; machinery, etc.) are followed by a singular verb: |Kerry’s luggage was very heavy. |
|Pluralia Tantum nouns will be followed either | |
|by plural verbs: | |
|a) when they name things made of two parts (glasses; scissors; trousers) |His trousers are very smart. |
|b) when they are one of these: chemicals; contents; ashes; surroundings, etc.| |
|or by singular verbs: | |
|a) when they name diseases: measles; mumps | |
|b) games: billiards; draughts | |
|c) when they are one of these: news; works, etc. |Mumps is a very common illness with children. |
|either by singular or by plural verbs after names of sciences, subjects or | |
|after such nouns as: means; series; species. |Her news is extremely interesting. |
| |Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. |
| |The acoustics of this room are very good. |
|The words hundred, thousand, million etc., take the plural verb: |Three hundred men were coming to the meeting. |
|The fractions -their verb depends on the noun determined by them: |Half the land is hilly. |
| |Half of the puppies were black. |
| |Nine-tenths of English speech is idiomatic. |
| |Two thirds of the flowers were faded. |
|A great (good) deal – takes the singular verb: |A great deal of time and pains is necessary for the study of English. |
| |A great many of the children were present. |
|A great (good) many – the plural verb. | |
|Fish. Fruit. (pesti, fructe) – take the plural |Are the fish fresh? |
| |The fruit were green. |
|A + noun + or two very often takes the plural verb: |A word or two is sufficient to convince him. |
THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
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THE OBJECT
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|Ways of expressing the object: |Examples: |
|a noun in the common case |We ought to give him a present, too. |
|a pronoun ( personal in the objective case, possessive, defining, reflexive, |You ought to know all about statues and things. |
|demonstrative, indefinite) | |
|a substantivized adjective or participle |Jane Forsyte always championed the unfortunate. |
|an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction |The sergeant ordered his men to stop. |
|a gerund, a gerundial phrase, or a gerundial construction |Could they prevent flying in war-time? |
|any part of speech used as a quotation |He called “hsst” several times. |
|a prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund |Do you object to my going away for a month. |
|a group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible|He found a number of persons in that room. |
|group | |
|Kinds of |The direct object |The indirect object |The complex object |The cognate object |
|objects | | | | |
|Characteristics|is a noun in the common case |denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed |consists of two components |it is used with intransitive verbs though it |
| |or a pronoun in the objective|sometimes it also denotes a thing |it can be prepositional and non-prepositional |has no preposition |
| |case that completes the | |the first component is a noun in the common case |it is expressed by a noun which is either of |
| |meaning of a transitive verb |1. of the first type, which expresses the addressee of the action. |or in the possessive case, a personal pronoun in |the same root as the verb or is similar to it|
| |is used after transitive |is used with transitive verbs which take a direct object, so it hardly ever stands alone. |the objective case, or a possessive pronoun |in meaning |
| |verbs |E.g. She gave him an interesting book to read. |the second component is an infinitive, a |it is almost regularly attended by an |
| |is used without any | |participle, a gerund, seldom a noun, an adjective,|attribute with which it forms a combination |
| |preposition |NB. As a rule the indirect object comes before the direct object. In this case it is used |a word denoting state, or a prepositional phrase |that is close in meaning to an adverbial |
| | |without a preposition. | |modifier: to live a happy life – to live |
| | |E.g. Without hope she sent Soames the telegram. |E.g. She thinks herself very clever. |happily |
| | |When the direct object precedes the indirect object, the latter is used chiefly with the |He could see the man and Great Beaver talking |it is generally used in such combinations as:|
| | |preposition to and sometimes for. |together. |to smile a sad smile, to laugh a bitter life,|
| | |E.g. He was giving an interview to the correspondents. | |to die a violent death, etc. |
| | |But when the direct object is a pronoun and the indirect object a noun, the indirect object |Thus these two waited with impatience for the | |
| | |follows the direct object. |three years to be over. |E.g. That night the roused forces of god and |
| | |E.g. I sent him to his mother. | |Evil fought their terrible fight for her |
| | |When the direct object is expressed by the pronoun it, it always precedes the indirect | |soul... |
| | |object. E.g. Give it to him. | | |
| | |There are a number of verbs after which the indirect object is used with the preposition to | | |
| | |even when it comes before the direct object. These are: to explain, to dedicate, to suggest, | | |
| | |to relate, to announce, to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to introduce, to submit, to| | |
| | |repeat, to dedicate, to disclose, to interpret, to point out. | | |
| | |E.g. I shall dictate to you the names of books. | | |
| | | | | |
| | |2. of the second type (prepositional indirect object), | | |
| | |which is more frequently used with intransitive verbs | | |
| | |does not always express the addressee of the action. | | |
| | |it can be used with any preposition | | |
| | |is used with verbs, adjectives, words denoting state, and nouns of verbal origin. | | |
| | |E.g. She was not aware of his being there. | | |
THE ATTRIBUTE
• is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character
• can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies
|Ways of expressing the attribute: |Examples |
|an adjective |The big girl is very lazy. |
|a pronoun (possessive, defining, demonstrative, interrogative, |I looked at her from that moment. |
|relative) | |
|a numeral (cardinal or ordinal) |In his final examinations he won six distinctions. |
|a noun in the common or possessive case |I recognized him as Todd, the village painter and carpenter. |
| |Her father’s nerves would never stand the disclosure. |
|a prepositional phrase |The letter from her sister reassured her. |
|an adverb |The room above is large and light. |
|Participle I and II or a participial phrase |I was dazzled by the snow glittering on the tree tops. |
|a prepositional phrase or a prepositional construction with a gerund|Sally hated the idea of borrowing and living on credit. |
|an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction |All right, go back to your office; you’ve got work to do. |
|quotation group |I don’t like “don’t-talk-to-me” air. |
The apposition
• is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun (with or without accompanying words) which characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name
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|Types of apposition|Characteristics: |Examples: |
|the close |is not separated by commas and stands in close connection with the word | |
|apposition |modified (usually it is a proper noun). It denotes: | |
| |a) a title, rank, or profession, or relationship | |
| | |Professor Brown, Captain Marryat, Aunt Polly, etc |
| |b) or a geographical name: |The River Thames, Mount Everest, etc. |
| |NB. Sometimes the apposition consists of the preposition of + noun. |the city of London |
|the loose or |it is not so closely connected with the noun |Dr. Smith, my predecessor, was a classmate of my father’s. |
|detached apposition|it is always separated by commas and has a stress of its own. | |
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
• it is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
• according to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers:
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|The adverbial modifiers: |Examples: |
|of time |We shall try it tomorrow. |
|of frequency |They had often bothered him. |
|of place and direction |Gains had spies everywhere. |
|of manner |Their conversations were conducted with icy formality. |
|of attendant circumstances |Now I can go to bed at last without dreading tomorrow. |
|of degree and measure |It is rather good. |
| |It weighs a pound. |
|of cause |The men were weary, having run behind the beasts all day. |
|of result (consequence) |She is too fond of the child to leave it. |
|of condition |In case of your absence I shall leave you a note. |
|of comparison |Judice is as white as mud. |
|of concession. (it is very rare) |Though frightened he carried it off very well. |
|of purpose |They opened the way for her to come to him. |
|Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier: |Examples |
|an adverb |Rachel turned instinctively t prevent a misfortune. |
|a noun with or without accompanying words |Next days the hours seemed to pass very slowly. |
|a prepositional phrase |I walked straight up the lane. |
|a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase with|Mary swims better than her sister. |
|a subordinating conjunction |While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove. |
|a participle or a participial phrase |When questioned, she explained everything very carefully. |
|absolute constructions |He stopped and turned about, his eyes brightly proud. |
|a prepositional phrase or construction with a gerund |His father looked up without speaking. |
|an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction. |They rose to go into the drawing-room |
REMARKS
It is not always easy to discriminate between different parts of the sentence expressed by prepositional phrases. The following parts of the sentence are not to be confused:
1. a prepositional indirect object and an adverbial modifier.
2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place.
1. a) Kate removed her eyes from the window and gazed directly at Papa.
b) Decimus had been born in Rome.
In (a) at Papa is a prepositional indirect object as the noun denotes a living being.
In (b) in Rome – adverbial modifier, as the noun denotes an inanimate object and the question is: where had he been born?
When the noun in the prepositional phrase denotes an inanimate object, very often 2 ways of analysis are possible. E.g. His wife was sitting before a very little fire.
Before a very little fire can be treated either as an adverbial modifier or an object.
2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place.
a) I thought you were going to a party at the club.
b) The party will take place at the club.
In (a) at the club is an attribute as it modifies a noun. It answers the question: What party?
In (b) the same prepositional phrase modifies a verbal group; consequently it is an adverbial modifier of place.
DETACHED PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
• These are secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words they modify.
|Detached parts of the |Characteristics |Examples |
|sentence | | |
|The detached adverbial |Any part of speech used in the function of an adverbial modifier may be |One summer during a brief vacation at Knocke, his visit has |
|modifier |detached, which accounts for the comma that separates it from the rest |come to the notice of Brande. |
| |of the sentence. | |
| |An adverbial modifier expressed by any absolute construction is |The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers entered|
| |generally detached. |their respective compartments. |
| | | |
| |Of all kinds of adverbial modifiers, that of attendant circumstances is |He took farewell tired with waiting. |
| |most apt to become detached. | |
|The detached attribute |can modify not only a common noun as an ordinary attribute does but also|Stout, middle – aged, full of energy, she bustled backwards |
| |a proper noun and a pronoun. |and forwards from the kitchen to her room. |
|The detached object |The prepositional indirect object is often detached. |She does not change – except her hair. |
| | |A silver tray was brought, with German plums (stafide). |
THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
They are words and word – groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence as:
[pic]
|The Independent Elements of the Sentence |Examples |
|Interjections: ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens etc. |Oh, if I only knew what a dreadful thing it is to be clean, I’d never |
| |come. |
|Direct address: | Good morning, sweet child! |
|Parenthesis. Characteristics: | |
|shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence. |To be sure, Morris had treated her badly. |
|or connects a given sentence with another one | |
|or summarizes what is said in the sentence. |Unfortunately, it will be you who will have to explain that to him. |
|is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. | |
|no question can be put to it. | |
|very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often | |
|separated from it by commas or dashes. | |
| | |
|A parenthesis can be expressed by: | |
|Modal words: | |
| |indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in fact, truly, naturally, |
| |surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, evidently, obviously, maybe, |
|Adverbs wich to a certain extent serve as connectives, such as: |luckily. |
| |firstly, secondly, finally, thus, consequently, then, anyway, |
| |moreover, besides, still, yet, nevertheless, otherwise, |
|Prepositional phrases: |notwithstanding, therefore etc. |
| |in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, by the by, on the one |
| |hand, on the contrary, at least, etc. |
|Infinitive and participial phrases: |to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, |
| |strictly speaking etc. |
SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS
two ore more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence. They are linked either by means of:
• coordinating conjunctions
• or asyndetically.
|Homogeneous parts |Examples |
|two or more homogeneous subjects to one predicate. |From the edge of the bed came a ripple and whisper. |
|two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject: | |
|simple predicates: | |
| |That gentleman started, retreated, rubbed his eyes, stared again and finally |
|a compound verbal predicate with homogeneous parts within it. |shouted: “Stop, stop!” |
|a compound verbal aspect predicate with homogeneous parts within it. |These sheets must be printed, dried, cut. |
|a compound nominal predicate with several predicatives within it. | |
| |First he began to understand and then to speak English. |
| | |
| |The sky was clear, remove, and empty. |
|3) two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers to one part of the |The unlighted, unused room seemed to absorb the moods of the house. |
|sentence. | |
WORD ORDER
S – subject A. - attribute
P – predicate Cog. O – cognate object
O – object Comp. O – complex object
DO – direct object Prep. O – prepositional object
IO – indirect object Ad. M. – adverbial modifier
1) direct word order in the English declarative sentence: S + P + Os + Ad. Ms.
2) inverted order of words: P + S.
|Inverted order of words is used in: |Examples |
|A) | |
|interrogative sentences: |Where did they find her? |
|sentences introduced by there: |There is nothing marvelous in this. |
|compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or neither: |Their parents escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons. |
|simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish: |Be it so! |
|B) |
|The inverted word order is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent position. In this case inversion is due to the author’s wish to |
|produce a certain stylistic effect. Thus inversion occurs when: |
|adverbial modifier opens the sentence: | |
|a) Ad. Ms. expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, and the subject often has a |In an open barouche stood a stout old gentleman. |
|lengthy modifier: | |
| |Never before and never since, have I known such peace, such |
|b) an Ad. M. with a negative meaning opens the sentence. Here belong such adverbial modifiers |happiness. |
|as: in vain, never, little, etc. In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate | |
|does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. | |
| | |
|c) Ad. Ms. expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now, then, etc. placed at the head of the |Now was the moment to act. |
|sentence, if the subject is expressed by a noun. | |
|NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place. | |
| |Thus he thought and sank down upon the wet earth. |
|d) Ad. Ms. of M. may or may not cause inversion. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be|Silently did the doctor bear all this. |
|used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. | |
|only, hardly, scarcely, (correlated with the conjunction when), no sooner (correlated with the |Scarcely was one long task completed when a guard unlocked our |
|conjunction than), nor open the sentence. |door. |
|the sentence begins with the word here which is not an adverbial modifier of place but has some|Here is my card, Sir. |
|demonstrative force. | |
|NB. If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the word order is direct. | |
|postpositions denoting direction open the sentence and the subject is expressed by a noun. Here|Out went Mr. Smith’s head again. |
|belong such words as: in, out, down, away, up, etc. | |
|NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place. | |
|an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a word-group with not a..., or many a... opens |Not a soul did I meet with in all my drive. |
|the sentence. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not | |
|contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. | |
|a predicative expressed by an adjective or by a noun modified by an adjective or by the pronoun|Sweet was that evening. |
|such opens the sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite pronoun). |Such is life. |
|the predicate, which introduces conditional clause, is expressed by was, were, had, could, or |Even were they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to |
|should. |enrich herself |
|Position of the object |
|a) in declarative sentences: | |
|P. + O. (usually) | |
|O. + S. + P. ( the purpose of emphasis) |A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. |
|NB. As a rule this prominent position of the object causes no inversion except | |
|when the object is expressed by word – groups with not a ..., or many a... | |
|S + P + Ad. M / Prep. I. O + D.O ( it occurs when the object has an attribute)| |
| | |
|I. O + S. + P. (very rare) | |
|b) in exclamatory sentences we may have: | |
|O + S + P: |What wonderfully blue eyes you have! |
|NB. This position of the object usually causes inversion only in poetry, high | |
|prose, and negative exclamatory sentences. |Passage after passage did he explore! |
| |
|Position of the attribute |
|It has 2 positions: |
|a) pre-position | |
|The usual way of the attribute is before the word it modifies. |What extraordinary ideas you have! |
|b) post-position | |
|Most adjectives in –able, -ible are generally placed after the noun, especially|sufferings unspeakable, the only person visible, etc. |
|when the noun is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective in the | |
|superlative degree: | |
|in some stock phrases: | |
| |from times immemorial, a poet laureate, court martial, etc. |
|the adjective proper and present are placed after the noun. |We shan’t find anything about sculpture in this book, it deals with |
| |architecture proper. (propriu-zis) |
| |All the people present ( prezenţi) welcomed Paul enthusiastically. |
| |NB. This is not a proper (correct) answer to the question. Our present |
| |(actuală) task is to preserve peace in the world. |
| |page ten, room two. |
|attributes expressed by cardinal numbers: |I’d like to read something very interesting. |
|adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns. |There’s nothing extraordinary in her dress. |
|attributes expressed by prepositional phrases follow the noun modified. |As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son Francis Nicholas. |
|to emphasize: |He gave Annette a look furtive and searching. |
| |
|Position of the adverbial modifier |
|S. + Ad. M + P.: |Helen patiently heard me to the end. |
|S. + P. + D. O. + Ad. M.: |Helen heard me patiently to the end. |
|S + P. + Ad. M. + D.O. (when the object has an attribute). |She knew instinctively the principles of “kiting”. |
| |
|1. The adverbial modifier of time (Ad. M. T.) |
|Ad. M. T. + S + P...: |On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived. |
|or S. + P. + ... Ad. M.: |We shall try tomorrow. |
|Now and then can be placed in nearly any position: |She then remembered that there would have been time for this. |
|The hour is generally mentioned before a day, night, evening... |At nine in the evening Mr. White opened the door. |
| |
|2. The adverbial modifier of place (Ad. M. Pl.) |
|Ad. M. Pl. + S. + P. + ...: |Down in the mill yard a little girl was playing. |
|S. + P. + O. +... Ad. M. Pl.: |A library was a common place for her, and he might see her there. |
|Sometimes: S. + P. + Ad. M. Pl. + Prep. O. |He emerged from the theatre with the first of the crowd. |
|S. + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. M. T. |I’m going to the country tomorrow. |
|S + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. M. Purp. | Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet. |
| |
|3. Adverbial modifier of frequency (Ad. M. F.) |
|S. + Ad. M. F. + P.: (very often) |She seldom comes on time. |
|but S + to be/ modal verbs + A. M. F.: |She is seldom on time. |
|N.B. but to emphasize: S + Ad. F. + P.: |You always are good with her. |
|S. + 1st aux. + Ad. M. F. + 2nd aux. + V.: |She has never been asked about this. |
|S. + sometimes/generally + P. or S. + P. + sometimes/generally: |For he sometimes thought that... |
| |And I got so lonely here sometimes. |
|Sometimes Ad. M. F + S. + P.: |Occasionally they followed the preachers. |
| |
|4. Adverbial modifier of manner (Ad. M. M.) |
|S. + intrans. verbs + Ad. M. M.: |“Don’t worry”, Louise said stoutly. |
|S. + transitive verbs + D.O. + Ad. M. M. |Ann shakes hands effusively with Soames. |
|S. + P. + Ad. M. M. + Prep. I. O.: |She leaned lightly against his shoulder. |
|S. + Ad. M. M. + P.: |I slowly descended. |
|S. + aux. verb + Ad. M. M. + verb...: |These ladies were deferentially received by Miss Temple. |
|5. Adverbial modifier of degree. ( Ad. M. D.) |
|always S + Ad. M. D. + P.: |I entirely agree with you. |
|S. + P. + Ad. M. D. ( enough): |He is clever enough. ( in case of an adjective ) |
|S. + P. + noun + enough...: |I have time enough to do it. |
|or S. + P. + enough + noun +...: |I have enough time to do it. |
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE( Fraza prin coordonare)
• it consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other
• a clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
• the clause may be connected in two ways:
[pic]
1) syndetically: a) The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.
b) He knew there were excuses, yet he felt sick at heart.
2) asyndetically: The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
The types of coordination:
|The types of coordination: |Expressed by: |Examples |
|copulative coordination |and, nor, neither...nor, not only...but (also). |Not only did he speak more correctly, but |
|( connects the ideas) | |he spoke more easily. |
|disjunctive coordination |or, else, or else, either...or, otherwise. |Either our union must be consecrated and |
|( indicates choice) | |sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. |
|adversative coordination |but, while, whereas, nevertheless, still, yet. |I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I |
|( shows opposition) | |wept. |
|causative – consecutive coordination |for, so, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence. |There was something strange with him, for |
| | |he was strangely grave and looked ill. |
| |NB. For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. | |
| |So, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence introduces coordinate | |
| |clauses denoting cause, consequence and result. | |
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE ( Fraza prin subordonare)
|Characteristics |Examples |
|it consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. | |
|The clauses may be linked in two ways: | |
|1) syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives: |More and more she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. |
| |(conjunction) |
| |All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. |
|2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective. |(connective) |
| |His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. |
| | |
|it may contain two or more homogenous clauses coordinated with each other. |They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the |
| |moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. |
|it may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate |I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about |
|clause. |her, as if she had made some great self- interested success in marrying Mr. |
| |Gowan. |
Types of subordinate clauses
[pic]
|Types of subordinate |Definition/ Characteristics |Examples |
|clauses | | |
|The subject clause |Performs the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. |What I want to do is to save us both. |
| |It is connected with the principal clause in the following ways: | |
| |by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether. | |
| | |It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in |
| |by means of the connectives: who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when, |during the evening. |
| |how, why. |It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in|
| |asyndetically. It appears before or after: |action. |
| |the verbs: seem, chance, appear, turn out. | |
| |such adjectives as: likely, certain, possible, clear, true, important, alarming, |It seemed that he was wrong. |
| |etc. |It’s important that the students have fulfilled the |
| |some transitive verbs expressing mood: alarm, trouble, amaze, attract, confuse, |tasks earlier. |
| |relieve, discourage, embarrass, scare, etc. | |
| | |That she hasn’t written yet amazes me. |
|The predicative clause |Performs the function of a predicative. The link verb together with the | |
| |predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. It is connected with the | |
| |principal clause in the following ways: | |
| |by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether, as if. | |
| |by means of the connectives: who, which, what, where, when, how, why. |I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. |
| |asyndetically |The question was how was the matter to be kept |
| | |quiet. |
|The direct object |Performs the function of direct object to the predicate-verb of the principal | |
|clause |clause. | |
| |The affirmative and interrogative sentences transformed into direct speech are |We asked him whether he had understood the |
| |also direct object clauses. |instructions. |
| |It is connected with the principal clause in the following ways: | |
| |by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether. | |
| | | |
| |by means of the connectives: who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when, | |
| |how, why. |Remember that we have to leave by 11.00 a.m. |
| |asyndetically | |
|The prepositional |Performs the function of indirect prepositional object to the predicate-verb of | |
|indirect object |the principal clause. | |
| |It is introduced by wh – elements both with and without prepositions: |Look at who has come. |
| | |Look where he is going. |
|Attributive clauses |They are divided into: | |
|(relative) |1) attributive relative restrictive clauses | |
| |restrict the meaning of the antecedents. |The bus that goes to the station stops at this |
| |they cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence |corner. |
| |they are not separated by a comma from the principal clause | |
| |they are introduced by: | |
| |a) relative pronouns: who, whose, which, etc. | |
| |b) relative adverbs: where, when, etc. | |
| |c) asyndetically | |
| | | |
| |2) attributive relative non-restrictive (descriptive) clauses |I liked the film we saw yesterday. |
| |do not restrict the meaning of the antecedents; it gives some additional | |
| |information about them | |
| |can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence | |
| |they are often separated by commas |Your desk mate, whose name I can never remember, has|
| | |just phoned. |
| |3) attributive appositive clauses | |
| |disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun | |
| |(opinion, reason, idea, problem, impression, doubt, excuse, question, fact). | |
| |are not separated by the principal clause by a comma | |
| |are usually introduced by: when, where, why, how, that, whether. | |
| | |I don’t know the reason why he left so quickly. |
|The adverbial clause of|Shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. |I hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in |
|time |it is introduced by: when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, as long |London. |
| |as, since, after, before, now that. | |
|The adverbial clause of|Shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. |Deronda placed himself where he could see her. |
|place |it is introduced by: where, wherever. | |
|The adverbial clause of|Shows the cause of the action expressed in the principal clause. |As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a |
|cause |it is introduced by: as, because, since, for fear that, on the ground that, for |week pass without paying it a visit. |
| |the reason that, etc. | |
|The adverbial clause of|States the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action |I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided |
|condition |expressed in the principal clause. |(dacă) it lies in my power. |
| |it is introduced by: if, provided ( that), so long as, suppose, in case, unless, | |
| |etc. | |
|The adverbial clause of|States the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. |I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I|
|purpose |it is introduced by: that, in order that, so that, lest, in case, for fear that. |should not be seen. |
|The adverbial clause of|Denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the | |
|concession |action expressed in the principal clause. | |
| |It is introduced by: though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, | |
| |whatever, whichever, notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that. |I enjoyed that day though it was cold and rainy. |
|The adverbial clause of|Denotes the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. |Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing,|
|result |It is introduced by: so that, that. |so that the streets were nearly deserted. |
| | |It was so hot that we opened all the windows. |
|The adverbial clause of|Characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. |Joe left the house as he had entered it. |
|manner |It is introduced by: ( exactly) as, (just) as. | |
|The adverbial clause of|Denotes an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. |We were going up the road as fast as we could. |
|comparison |It is introduced by: than, as, as...as, not so...as, as if, as though. | |
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
[pic]
DIRECT OJECT CLAUSES
A)
|Main / Regent Clause |Subordinate Clause |Examples |
|PRESENT |Any tense required by he meaning of the |Mary explains/has explained/will explain that she goes/will go/has |
|PRESENT PERFECT |clause |gone/went/had gone to London. |
|FUTURE | | |
B)
[pic]
a) He said he had seen that film.
b) I thought they were at film.
c) They promised they would write that exercise again.
However, there are some exceptions to the rules of sequence of tenses in direct object clauses:
|a) The verbs to ask, to demand, to insist, to order, to recommend, to require, to |She demands/requires/insists/etc. that you should arrive in time. |
|urge, etc. in the main clause are followed by the Analytical Subjunctive) | |
|b) Expressing | |
|general (universal) truths (those statements that are either generally accepted or |The pupil said that five and five is ten. It was proved that water |
|can be scientifically proved) |boils at 100 C. |
|lasting (irreversible) truths are statements whose validity exceeds the moment of | |
|speaking: |I knew that she is a widow. (her condition of being a widow was |
|The Past Tense forms of the verbs to know, to believe, to realize may be followed |irreversible at that moment) |
|by Present Tense since, in themselves, they imply the veridicity of the direct |You realized that the boy is right. |
|object. | |
TIME CLAUSES
A basic rule is that no Future Tense can occur in a time clause. In its stead, the following tenses are used:
|Main/Regent Clause |Subordinate Clause |Examples |
|a) FUTURE |PRESENT TENSE |Margaret will tell us the truth when she knows it |
| |( for simultaneous actions) | |
|b) FUTURE |PRESENT PERFFCT |The boy will translate the lesson after he has learnt the new words. |
| |(for anterior / prior actions) | |
| |PAST TENSE (for simultaneous actions) |Mary visited us whenever she was free. |
|c) PAST TENSE | |I promised mother I would buy that book when I saw it. |
|or FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST | | |
| |PAST PERFECT (for anterior/prior action) |The children went to bed after they had done their lessons. |
| | |We understood that they would come home after they had finished their work. |
NB. In the other types of subordinate clauses, there will usually occur those tenses that will be logically required, with no constraint:
|Types of clauses |Examples |
|Attributive clauses |Yesterday I bought a book which is very interesting/I will read this week/I have been looking for since |
| |April. |
|Adverbial clause of manner |Jack played tennis that day as he will never be able to play again |
|Adverbial clause of comparison |Last year Mary spoke English better than her sister does now. |
|Adverbial clause of reason |My brother finished his work in the morning because he will go to a party this evening. |
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
A) USE
In Direct Speech we give the exact words of the speaker, while in Indirect Speech we explain/report what the speaker has said.
A) Reporting Statements
When changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, there take place some changes. Generally speaking, words expressing “nearness” in Direct Speech become words expressing “remoteness” in Indirect Speech.
|Direct Speech |Indirect Speech |
|I |he/she |
|we |they |
|My |his/her |
|our |their |
|This/ these |That/ those |
|here |there |
|now |then |
|today |that day |
|tonight |that night |
|tomorrow |the next day / the following day |
|yesterday |the day before / the previous day |
|ago |before |
|next |the next |
|the day after tomorrow |in two day’s time |
|the day before yesterday |two days before |
As for the tenses used in Indirect Speech it must be shown that, when the reporting verb is in the Present Tense or in the Present Perfect, no tense change occurs in Indirect Speech:
“I shall buy this book tomorrow,” Jane says. (Direct Speech) - Jane says that she will buy this book tomorrow. (Indirect Speech)
But, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, the following change of tenses takes place:
|Direct Speech |Indirect Speech |Examples |
|Present |Past Tense |“I live in this house now,” the girl explained. |
| | |The girt explained that she lived in that house then. |
|Past Tense |Past Perfect |“We saw this film yesterday,” the children told me. |
|Present Perfect | |The children told me that they had seen that film the day before. |
| | |“I have not visited New York yet” the tourist said. |
| | |The tourist said that he had not visited New York yet. |
|Future |Future-in-the-Past |“We shall not be late,” my friends promised. |
| | |My friends promised that they would not be late. |
|Exceptions |Examples |
|When the subjects of the reporting verb and of the action in the direct object|“I must do all these exercises today,” my son complained. |
|clause are identical, the verb must may remain unchanged: |My son complained that he must do all those exercises that day. |
| |My son complained that he had to do all those exercises that day. |
|However, even in this case, the more frequent form would be: | |
|Conditional sentences of Type II remain unchanged, as well as the subjunctive |“I would write to her if I knew her address,” the boy explained. |
|after: wish, would rather, it’s (high) time: |The boy explained that he would write to her if he knew her address. |
| |She said: “I wish I were younger.” |
| |She said she wished she were younger. |
|Had better, might, ought to, used to, could, should, needn’t do not normally |“You might be right,” she said. |
|change in Indirect Speech: |She said that he might be right. |
|When expressing repeated actions in the past: |“We often walked on the beach when we were young,” my grandparents told me. |
| |My grandparents told me that they often walked on the beach when they were |
| |young. |
B) Reporting Questions
|General (Yes/No) questions will be introduced by if/whether: |“Is your mother at home?” aunt Maggie wanted to know. - Aunt Maggie wanted to know |
| |if/whether mother was at home. |
|Whether usually expresses a doubt and a possible choice between two |“Will you go to the mountains or will you spend this week-end in town?” my friend |
|alternatives: |asked me. - My friend asked me whether I would go to the mountains or would spend |
| |that week-end in town. |
|Special questions will maintain, in Indirect Speech, the interrogative|“Where do you live?” the policeman wanted to know. The policeman wanted to know where|
|word they begin with: |I lived. |
NB. The word order of questions changes to the word order specific to statements when these questions are turned into the Indirect Speech.
C) Reporting Commands
|Direct Speech |Indirect Speech |Examples |
|Affirmative commands |Long infinitives |“Come in!” she told me. - She told me to come in. |
|Negative commands |Not + long infinitives |“Don’t run in the street!” mother advised her son. Mother advised her son not|
| | |to run in the street. |
The Imperative with let, when turned into the Indirect Speech, is normally introduced by the verb to suggest: “Let’s hurry now,” he said. ≈ He suggested that they should hurry then.
D) Reporting Exclamations
|Exclamations with What a... , or How... are reported by: |“What a sunny day” she said. – She said that it was a sunny day. |
|Exclamations such as: “Heavens “, “Oh “, etc. are usually |“She gave an exclamation of surprise/disgust/etc.” or ‘She exclaimed with |
|reported by: |surprise/disgust/etc.” |
| |She said “Good morning! - She greeted me/wished me a good morning. |
|Other Changes |She said “Thank you! - She thanked me. |
| |She said “Merry Christmas! - She wished me a merry Christmas. |
| |She said “Liar! - She called him a liar. |
| |He said “Damn! - He swore. |
EXERCISES
MOERPHOLOGY
THE NOUN
1. Read this article. Circle all the proper nouns. Underline once all the common count nouns. Underline twice the common non-count nouns.
Was Columbus really the first explorer to discover the Americas? Thor Heyerdahl didn’t think so. He believed that ancient people were able to build boats that could cross oceans. To test his ideas, he decided to build a copy of the reed boats that were pictured in ancient paintings and sail across the Atlantic from North Africa to Barbados. Heyerdahl’s team also copied ancient Middle Eastern pots and filled them with food for their journey – dried fish, honey, oil, eggs, nuts, and fresh fruit. Ra, the expedition’s boat, carried an international group including a Norwegian, an Egyptian, an Italian, a Mexican, and a Chadian.
The first trip failed, but everyone survived and wanted to try again. Departing on May 17, 1970, under the flag of the United Nations, Ra II crossed the Atlantic in 57 days. The expedition proved that ancient civilizations had the skill to reach the Americans long before Columbus.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Hat, box, day, boy, job, bag, mouth, clock, map, plant, class, birth, branch, bath, factory, family, house, play, key, leaf, knife, life, wife, chief, roof, man, woman, tooth, foot, child, ox, sheep, bush, Negro, quantity, fox, species, hero, valley, means, thief, volcano, quiz, epoch, studio, bus, photo, mouse, scarf, tomato, potato, belief, goose, path, country, toy, church, dish, crisis, thesis, shoe.
Ask your group-mates to give the singular of the following nouns:
children, umbrellas, gentlemen, teeth, parties, geese, lives, dictionaries, factories, deer, leaves, zoos, photos, pianos, plays, cities, stomachs, shelves, dishes, dogs, hens, friends, maps, data, oxen, handkerchiefs, trays, heroes, wolves, couches, bushes, phenomena, means, loaves, stimuli, halves.
Explain and reproduce the following dialogue:
Teacher: Is “trousers” plural or singular?
Pupil: Singular at the top and plural at the bottom.
Make these sentences plural.
1. He is a teacher. 2. She is a pretty girl of sixteen years old. 3. The church is old. 4. There is a man behind you. 5. The glass is broken. 6. Here is a book and a notebook. 7. A mouse is an animal. 8. A goose is a bird. 9. A calf is a little cow. 10. A dog is bigger than a cat. 11. The classroom is large. 12. A woman is busier than a man. 13. The leaf is green. 14. Give me the key. 15. The shop is open today. 16. The door is shut. 17. The book is on the shelf. 18. The shelf is on the wall. 19. The child is ill. 20. The deer is young. 21. The tooth is broken. 22. The foot is sore. 23. The sheep is in the field. 24. The brother-in-law is in the garden. 25. The knife is sharp. 26. The photo is excellent. 27. The piano is beautiful. 28. The hero is unknown. 29. The thief was found. 30. The scarf is red. 31. The toy is pretty.
Make these sentences singular.
1. The boxes are heavy. 2. The men are in the shop. 3. There are forget-me-nots in the garden. 4. The villages are far. 5. The leaves are dry. 6. The wolves are stronger than the foxes. 7. The plays are interesting. 8. The branches are broken. 9. The mice are grey. 10. The animals in the zoos are funny. 11. My teeth ache.12. The days are long in summer. 13. There are boys and girls in the classrooms. 14. My friends are good. 15. The knives are sharp. 16. The jobs are interesting. 17. There are hats and bags in my car. 18. There are buses and cars in the street. 19. The babies are crying in the dining-room. 20. The watches are new. 21. Take these loaves. 22. There are interesting flies in my collection. 23. His shoes are at the shoemaker’s. 24. The oxen are in the yard. 25. These heroes are known to everybody.
Give the plural of the following nouns.
Housewife, Englishman, passer-by, Frenchwoman, businessman, fireman, postman, workman, mother- in-law, forget-me-not, step-daughter, fingertip.
8. Write the nouns denoting parts of the human body on the blackboard.
one (a) nose.
Model: I have
two eyes.
Head, face, shoulder, eye, cheek, lip, tooth, mouth, tongue, brain, ear, chin, neck, throat, thumb, finger, hand, wrist, elbow, chest, leg, fingernail, knee, ankle, foot, toe, arm.
Choose the singular or plural nouns from the given list and fill in the blanks using the possessive forms:
problem lives toys parks fur
shoes teeth friends storm skin
mistake name songs visit decisions
house wife car rays climate
newspaper jobs product environment holiday
history health room influence
Model: A – home is his castle. => A man’s home is his castle.
1. People – are interesting to a writer. 2. Men – are very different from women’s. 3. The children – are on the sofa. 4. Their wives – are very interesting. 5. The boys – are on the shelf. 6. The men – are hard. 7. The child – is in danger. 8. The patients – are healthy. 9. The Negroes – are beautiful. 10. John – is serious. 11. The ladies – is upstairs. 12. The Joneses – is large. 13. The hero – is unknown. 14. My brother-in-law – is new. 15. Charles – is a famous singer. 16. New York – are dangerous at night. 17. This factory – are very good. 18. Today – is full of interesting news. 19. The earth – is in danger. 20. Yesterday – is over and the week – came to an end. 21. The sun – are very strong in the South. 22. The school – is long. 23. Science – is great. 24. The fox – is red. 25. The mouse – is grey. 26. The country – is different. 27. The Party – are important. 28. The month – is over.
Fill in the blanks using the given nouns (piece, blade, block, pile, lump, sheet, bar, glass, slice). Make up situations of your own using the expressions.
Model: A – of paper. => A piece of paper.
1. a – of bread; 2. a – of grass; 3. a – of ice; 4. a – of rubbish; 5. a – of sugar; 6. a – of soap; 7. a – of chocolate; 8. a – of water; 9. a – of cake.
Put together the words under A and B, making possessive forms.
Model: student – book => the student’s book.
A. student B. book
eye needle
teacher question
yesterday newspaper
children mother
pupil dictionary
friend father
girl answer
boy uncle
a morning trip
mother hair
branches the tree
tomorrow concert
John sister
bottom the river.
Describe your flat, using nouns in the possessive case or of-phrases:
Prompts: the size of the flat (room, kitchen), the colour of the room (carpet, furniture, curtains, walls, lamps) the width (the length) of the balcony (corridor), etc.
Ask your group-mates what they usually do at:
a baker’s (shop), a barber’s, a bookseller’s, a butcher’s, a chemist’s, a dressmaker’s, a grocer’s, a photographer’s, a shoemaker’s, a stationer’s, a doctor’s.
Prompts: meat, hair, bread, paper, books, shoes, photos, sugar, clothes, drugs.
THE ARTICLE
Put a or an before each of the following if necessary:
1. Does mother take ___ sugar in ___ coffee? 2. You have ___ hour and ___ half for your lunch. 3. Mr. Jones has ___ little money left. 4. She will travel by ___ plane this time. 5. ___ book on psychology is not interesting for ___ child. 6. Father always smokes ___ cigarette with ___ cup of ___ coffee in the morning. 7. I have paid ___ lot of money for ___ Rembrandt today. 8. Does your sister need ___ notebook? 9. John can hardly speak because he has ___ sore throat. 10. The rubbish is collected twice ___ week. 11. My wife would like ___ coffee and ___ sandwich. 12. ___ boy likes playing football better than studying. 13. I’ve found ___ item of news that you might be interested in. 14. I think she has made ___ big mistake. 15. They heard ___ sudden noise. 16. The old woman was knocked down by ___ car. 17. Jane has got ___ pain in her shoulder. 18. You need ___ visa. 19. My friend is looking for ___ job. 20. Mother saw ___ accident this morning when ___ car crashed into ___ tree.
Complete the following sentences by putting the into the spaces only where necessary:
1. “Excuse me, can you tell me where ___ theatre is?”
“It’s on ___ left, just after ___ museum.”
2. This thing proves once again that ___ honesty is not ___ best policy. Sometimes ___ diplomacy is ___ more successful.
3. “Do you know who put ___ first man into ___ space? ___ United States of America or Russia?
“___ Russia, but ___ Americans were ___ first on ___ moon.”
4. “What is on ___ TV this evening?”
“It’s a comedy and I don’t like ____ comedies very much.”
5. What ___ present Government has done up to now is that it has made ___ rich richer and ___ poor poorer.”
6. “Who is ___ man over there talking to ___ woman with ___ grey hair?”
“Oh, that’s Mr. Williams. He’s one of ___ teachers in our school. He came to our town ___ month before last.”
7. “My sister believes that ___ women are better drivers than ___ men.”
“Not necessarily. Some of ___ worst drivers I know are women.”
Complete the sentences below using the with these adjectives: accused; aged; blind; dead; deaf; disabled; grey-haired; injured; old; poor; rich; sick; unemployed; young.
1. ___ can read with their fingers. 2. ___ should be held in great respect by everyone. 3. They say one should never speak ill of ___. 4. The numbers of ___ are still increasing. 5. Only ___ can buy such expensive cars. 6. He gave away a lot of his money to ___. 7. ___ were permitted to make their last wishes. 8. She spent her life visiting ___ in the hospitals. 9. ___ have to wear hearing aids. 10. One ought to help ___. 11. This is a hospital for ___. 12. ___ usually don’t understand the present-day problems of ___.
Supply a/an or the if they are necessary:
1. ___ Lake Ontario is one of ___ five Great Lakes in ___ North America. 2. Andrew and Alice went to ___ school yesterday and then studied in ___ library before returning home. 3. There are only ___ few seats left for tonight’s musical at ___ university. 4. When you go to ___ supermarket, please buy ___ bottle of ___ chocolate milk and ___ dozen oranges. 5. Your ___ car is five years old and it still runs well. 6. No one in ___ German class knew ___ correct answer to ___ Mr. Gruber’s ___ question. 7. ___ red books on ___ table are for our Geography class. 8. Please give me ___ cup of coffee with ___ cream and ___ sugar. 9. ___ judge asked ___ witness to tell ___ truth. 10. Margaret is studying ___ Physics and ___ Chemistry this term. 11. ___ Statue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from ___ France to ___ United States. 12. Peter’s father bought him ___ ball that he had wanted for his birthday. 13. Our cousin is in ___ hospital so we went to visit him ___ last night. 14. ___ Queen Elizabeth II is ___ monarch of ___ Great Britain. 15. On our trip to Brazil, we crossed ___ Atlantic Ocean. 16. While Ted was in Alaska, he visited ___ Eskimo village. 17. ___ Declaration of Independence was drawn up in 1776. 18. ___ armchair she is sitting in is broken. 19. ___ Civil War was fought in ___ United States between 1861 and 1865. 20. Two nights ago there was ___ bird singing outside our house. 21. George can’t go to ___ cinema tonight because he has to write ___ essay. 22. Scientists hope to send ___ expedition to ___ Mars during ___ 1990s. 23. John has been admitted to ___ School of Medicine at ___ Cambridge University. 24. Emma plays ___ guitar and her brother plays ___ violin.
Insert a, an or the if necessary.
(A) 1. Shakespeare? He was ....... poet. 2. Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, they were ....... American presidents.
3. Do you collect ..... stamps? 4. What ...... beautiful garden! 5. Do you enjoying going to .... concerts? 6. When we found that someone had broken into our house we called ....... police. 7. We didn’t have any money, so we had to go to ..... bank. 8. I’m not very hungry. I had ....... big breakfast. 9. It was a beautiful day. ....... sun shone brightly in ...... sky. 10. ..... piano is my favourite instrument. 11. Why do ...... English think they are so wonderful. 12. Agnes has been ..... nurse all her life. She has spent her life caring for ...... sick. 13. I like your garden. ....... flowers are beautiful. 14. Do you like ...... coffee? 15. ....... women are often better teachers than ..... men. 16. I know someone who wrote ...... book about ..... Smith’s life. 17. Two of ..... biggest problems facing our society are: ...... crime and ..... unemployment. 18. I hate ..... violence. 19. After I leave ..... school, I want to go to ....... university. 20. Mr. Kelly went to .... school to meet his daughter. 21. I was very tired and it was very late, so I went to ..... bed. 22. A friend of mine used to work as ..... reporter in ..... Middle East. 23. .... Nile is ...... longest river in Africa. 24. We went to Spain for our holidays and swam in ..... Mediterranean. 25. Last year we visited ........ Canada and ...... United States. 26. The British Prime Minister lives in ...... Downing Street. 27. Frank is ....... student at ..... Liverpool University. 28. Open ...... book at ..... page 12. 29. Is there ........ park near here? “Yes, ...... Victoria Park. 30. Is there ........ restaurant near here? “Yes, ...... Pecking Restaurant. 31. Which country is Manila the capital of? ....... Philippines. 32. The name of ocean between ....... America and ...... Asia is ...... Pacific Ocean. 33. She is rather ...... nice person. 34. Excuse me, can you tell me where ..... theatre is? 35. Please give me ..... cup of coffee with ...... cream and ..... sugar. 36. ....... stamps in my collection may be valuable. 37. ....... rabbits run very fast. 38. .... Doctor Taylor has performed some interesting transplants. 39. ...... lion can be dangerous. 40. ..... morning after morning I have taken my walk in the same direction. 41. ..... dead silence prevailed. 42. ..... We usually have ..... tea at four o’clock. 43. .... Browns lived in the next house. 44. She was born ...... Gibson, rather than ...... Watson. 45. ..... sun rises at six. 46...... French are famous for their food.
B)
1. There was ___ knock on ___ door. I opened it and found ___ small dark man in ___ blue overcoat and ___ woolen cap.
2. He said he was ___ employee of ___ gas company and had come to read ___ meter.
3. But I had ___ suspicion that he wasn’t speaking ___ truth because ___ meter readers usually wear ___ peaked caps.
4. However, I took him to ___ meter, which is in ___ dark corner under ___ stairs (___ meters are usually in ___ dark corners under ___ stairs).
5. I asked if he had ___ torch; he said he disliked torches and always read ___ meters by ___ light of ___ match.
6. I remarked that if there was ___ leak in ___ gaspipe there might be ___ explosion while he was reading ___ meter.
7. He said, ‘As ___ matter of ___ fact, there was ___ explosion in ___ last house I visited; and Mr. Smith, ___owner of ___ house, was burnt in ___ face’.
8. ‘Mr. Smith was holding ___ lighted match at ___ time of ___ explosion’.
9. To prevent ___ possible repetition of this accident, I lent him ___ torch.
10. He switched on ___ torch, read ___ meter and wrote ___ reading down on ___ back of ___ envelope.
11. I said in ___ surprise that ___ meter readers usually put ___ readings down in ___ book.
12. He said that he had had ___ book but that it had been burnt in ___ fire in ___ Mr. Smith‘s house.
13. By this time I had come to ___ conclusion that he wasn’t ___ genuine meter reader; and ___ moment he left ___ house I rang ___ police.
14. Are John and Mary ___ cousins? ~
No, they aren’t ___ cousins; they are ___ brother and ___ sister.
15. ___ fog was so thick that we couldn’t see ___ side of ___ road. We followed ___ car in front of us and hoped that we were going ___ right way.
16. I can’t remember ___ exact date of ___ storm, but I know it was ___ Sunday because everybody was at ___ church. On ___ Monday ___ post didn’t come because ___ roads were blocked by ___ fallen trees.
17. Peter thinks that this is quite ___ cheap restaurant.
18. There’s been ___ murder here. ~
Where’s ___ body? ~
There isn’t ___ body. ~
Then how do you know there’s been ___ murder?
19. Number ___ hundred and two, ___ house next door to us, is for sale. It’s quite ___ nice house with ___ big rooms. ___ back windows look out on ___ park.
20. I don’t know what ___ price ___ owners are asking. But Dry and Rot are ___ agents. You could give them ___ ring and make them ___ offer.
21. ___ postman’s little boy says that he’d rather be ___ dentist than ___ doctor, because ___ dentists don’t get called out at ___ night.
22. Just as ___ air hostess (there was only one on the plane) was handing me ___ cup of ___ coffee ___ plane gave ___ lurch and ___ coffee went all over ___ person on ___ other side of ___ gangway.
23. There was ___ collision between ___ car and ___ cyclist at ___ crossroads near ___ my house early in ___ morning. ___ cyclist was taken to ___ hospital with ___ concusion. ___ driver of ___ car was treated for ___ shock. ___ witnesses say that ___ car was going at ___ seventy miles ___ hour.
24. Professor Jones, ___ man who discovered ___ new drug that everyone is talking about, refused to give ___ press conference.
25. Peter Piper, ___ student in ___ professor’s college, asked him why he refused to talk to ___ press.
26. We’re going to ___ tea with ___ Smiths today, aren’t we? Shall we take ___ car? ~
We can go by ___ car if you wash ___ car first. We can’t go to ___ Mrs. Smith’s in ___ car all covered with ___ mud.
27. He got ___ job in ___ south and spent ___ next two years doing ___ work he really enjoyed.
28. It is ___ pleasure to do ___ business with such ___ efficient organization.
29. ___ day after ___ day passed without ___ news, and we began to lose ___ hope.
30. Would you like to hear ___ story about ___ Englishman, ___ Irishman and ___ Scotsman? ~
No. I’ve heard ___ stories about ___ Englishmen, ___ Irishmen and ___ Scotsmen before and they are all ___ same.
31. But mine is not ___ typical story. In my story ___ Scotsman is generous, ___ Irishman is logical and ___ Englishman is romantic. ~
Oh, if it’s ___ fantastic story I’ll listen with ___ pleasure.
32. My aunt lived on ___ ground floor of ___ old house on ___ River Thames. She was very much afraid of ___ burglars and always locked up ___ house very carefully before she went to ___ bed. She also took ___ precaution of looking under ___ bed to see if ___ burglar was hiding there.
33. “___ modern burglars don’t hide under ___ beds,” said her daughter. “I’ll go on looking just ___ same,” said my aunt.
34. One morning she rang her daughter in ___ triumph. “I found ___ burglar under ___ bed ___ last night,” she said, “and he was quite ___ young man.”
THE ADJECTIVE
Answer the following questions.
Model: Which is larger: a sea or a lake? => A sea is larger than a lake. (A sea is)
1. Which is more comfortable: a chair or an armchair? 2. Which is lighter: paper or wood? 3. Which is sweeter: honey or sugar? 4. Which is heavier: wood or stone? 5. Which is quicker: a cat or a dog? 6. Which is more difficult: English or Chinese? 7. Which is more interesting: the book or the film?
Use the adjectives in the comparative or in the superlative degree.
1. He usually brought many bottles of lager with him; it was _______ (clean) and ________ (safe) than water. 2. She was a small woman, a little _______ (short) than Roy and considerably ________ (thin). 3. Marlow is one of _______ (pleasant) river centres I know of. 4. They are certainly much _______ (useful) in the Gredos than here. 5. “That’s right, miss,” said ________ of the men. 6. I suppose she was ________ (beautiful) creature I ever saw in my life. 7. It was _______ (early) than I thought, not yet four. 8. The house seemed _______ (large) than before. 9. If I could live my life again I would try to do _______ (much) work. 10. I can’t send him straight into _______ (bad) job on the battalion front. 11. I think my father is the ________ (good) man I have ever known. 12. Women cry for ________ (odd) things, sometimes for pleasure. 13. The _______ (much) money I make, the _______ (happy) I am. 14. He wanted to help those ________ (little) fortunate than him.
Correct these sentences
1. He’s more older than he looks. 2. Jessica’s as tall than her mother. 3. Trains in London are more crowded that in Paris. 4. Oxford is one of oldest universities in Europe. 5. He isn’t as intelligent than his sister. 6. This is more hard than I expected. 7. Who is the most rich man in the world? 8. Everything is more cheap in my country. 9. Rome was hoter than I expected.
Rewrite the sentences with as ... as or not as ... as.
1. Bob’s taller than Jack.
Jack’s not as tall as Bob.
2. Bob got more presents than Jack.
3. Jill’s more intelligent than Bill.
4. The sun’s hotter than the moon.
5. Are you and your husband the same age?
6. You can read more quickly than I can.
7. Harry won more money than Bill.
8. ‘Is Switzerland bigger than Luxembourg?’ ‘Yes, it is.’
9. Eva’s work is better than mine.
10. Dogs are friendlier than cats.
THE ADVERB
Form the adverbs from the following adjectives by adding the suffix –ly.
Polite, happy, complete, just, real, nice, gay, recent, right, bad, quick, wide, deep, attentive, high, careful, close, sharp, strict, loud, unfortunate, serious, slow, clear, exact, wonderful.
State whether the words given in bold type are adjectives or adverbs.
1. All is well that ends well. 2. He kept close to the road. 3. You look quite ill. 4. Look straight ahead. 5. Let’s meet at 5 o’clock sharp. 6. We shall return early. 7. It takes me long to come here. 8. When I came back he was fast asleep. 9. I shall come in half an hour. 10. It’s half white and half red.
Use the comparative or superlative degree of the adverbs.
1. Then the bus... began to run, ______________ (fast) still, through a long avenue. 2. ... moreover, he was _______________ (well) educated than the others. 3. She “was the one who was being hurt _________________ (deeply). 4. He contrived to get a glimpse of Montanelli once or _______________ (often) in every week, if only for a few minutes. 5. Driving _______ slowly now, she arrived between four and five. 6. However, I must bear my cross as _______ well I may. 7. Then he dismissed the thought as unworthy and impossible, and yielded himself _________ (freely) to the music. 8. He followed her mental process _________ (clearly) now, and her soul was no __________ (long) the sealed wonder it had been. 9. Felix’s eyebrows rose _________ (high) than ever. 10. It was a comfort to Margaret about this time, to find that her mother drew _______ (tenderly) towards her than she had ever done.
Complete Maggie’s letter with the correct word in parentheses.
Dear Mom and Dad,
Life in New York is very (exciting/excitingly). Luis and I weren’t sure we’d like such a (large/largely) city, but it’s so interesting! Yesterday we saw a street musician near school. He played the violin so (beautiful/ beautifully) we couldn’t believe he wasn’t in a big concert hall. You’d be surprised to see us. We walk (happy/happily) down the (busy/busily) streets, and the noise doesn’t bother us at all! I’m sending a photo of our apartment building. It looks (nice/nicely), doesn’t it? It’s so (quiet/quietly) we can (hard/hardly) believe it’s in New York. Our next-door neighbor is very (nice/nicely). At first she seemed (shy/shyly) but now we are (good/well) friends.
We hope you’re both well. Please give our love to everyone and write soon.
Love,
Maggie
Make up sentences of your own.
Model: Come as quickly as possible.
Prompts: to come – soon, to smoke – little, to get up – early, to read – much, to do it – quickly, to listen to the tape-recorder – often, to study – well, to read – loud, to finish the work – quickly, to treat it – seriously.
THE PRONOUN
1. Replace the nouns with pronouns:
1. Peter sees Mary. 2. The girl has the answer. 3. The cat is sleeping. 4. George is studying French. 5. Mrs. Craig is with my brother. 6. Jimmy and Alison are outside the shop. 7. The dogs have played with the cat. 8. The teacher is in front of the house. 9. Alice is watching TV. 10. Loren wants to see Julie. 11. The present is for the children. 12. The girl bought the books.
2. Choose the correct form of the personal pronouns given in brackets:
1. My husband and (I/me) have just come back home from the theatre. 2. If you see Jane, please give (she/her) my regards. 3. So, this is the baby! Is (it/she) a girl? 4. (We/Us), the Romanians, are very proud of our past. 5. That’s very kind of (they/them). 6. Pass (I/me) the bread, please! 7. Let (we/us) go on this trip together. 8. It is said that (she/her) likes playing tennis. 9. We wanted to know where (they/them) lived. 10. Your friend enjoys fishing, doesn’t (he/it)?
3. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding possessive pronouns or adjectives:
1. Mr.Brown is painting ___ house. 2. It seems to him that my secretary is more efficient than ___. 3. What did they think of that party of ___? 4. She offered ___ services. Did any of the other people offer ___? 5. Grannie can’t find ___ glasses. 6. I always pay ___ bills on time. 7. Look at those puppies biting ___ tails. 8. You have found ___ umbrella, but I haven’t found ___. 9. I like ___ job, but you don’t like___. 10. She is typing ___ reports and we are typing ___.
Complete the sentences with another or the other.
1. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind, the tiger is ___________.
2. There are two colors on this page. One is white, ____________ is black.
3. Alex’s bicycle was run over by a truck and destroyed. He needs to get _______________ one.
4. The Smiths have two bicycles. One belongs to Mr. Smith, ___________ - to his wife.
5. There are three books on my desk. Two of them are dictionaries. __________ one is a telephone directory.
6. The puppy chewed up my telephone directory, so I went to the telephone company to get ___________ phone book.
7. Vietnam is a country in Southeast Asia. Thailand is _______________.
8. It rained yesterday, and from the looks of those dark clouds, we’re going to have ___________ rainstorm today.
9. Nicole and Michelle are identical twins. The only way you can tell them apart is by looking at their ears. One of them has pierced ears and _____________ doesn’t.
10. Of the 50 states in the US, 49 are located on the North American continent. Where’s _________ located?
11. I have 2 brothers. One is named Nick. __________ is named Matt.
12. There are 5 names in this list. One is Adam. __________ is Greg. __________ is Nick. _________ of the names is Eric. ___________ name on the list is Jessica.
Complete the sentences with other(s) or the other(s).
1. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind. Some _________ are tigers, horses, and whales.
2. There are many kinds of animals in the world. The elephant is one kind. Some __________ kinds are tigers, horses and whales.
3. There are three colors in the US flag. One of the colors is red. ___________ are white and blue.
4. There are three colors in the US flag. One of the colors is red. ___________ colors are white and blue.
5. There re four seasons. Spring and summer are two. ____________ are fall and winter.
6. Spring and summer are two of the four seasons. _____________ seasons are fall and winter.
7. There are many kinds of geometric figures. Some ar circles. __________ figures are squares. Still _________ are rectangular.
8. There are three geometric figures. One is a square. ___________ figures are a rectangle and a triangle.
9. Of the four geometric figures, only the circle has curved lines. ___________ have straight lines.
10. Some ships are fuelled by petroleum. ___________ are propelled by atomic power.
11. Some boats are used for pleasure. ____________ boats are used for commercial fishing.
12. Many people like to get up very early in the morning. __________ like to sleep until noon.
13. Out of the twenty students in the class, 18 passed the exam. __________ failed.
14. Out of the 20 students in the class, only two failed the exam. __________ students passed.
Choose the correct variant.
1. They sat for two hours without talking to (each other, another). 2. Jill and Jack write articles for (their, theirs) school newspaper. 3. Most of the sports articles are (their, theirs). 4. Have you got any (other, another) colours? 5. it is a good idea of (your, yours) to go to the theatre tonight. 6. Be nice to (one another, the other). 7. “Is it (your, yours) article about snakes?” “No, it’s not (my, mine). It’s Jane’s”. 8. Do you want a blue pen or black (one, ones)? 9. Some people like hamburgers; (other, others) prefer fishburgers. 10. We are going boating with some friends of (our, ours). 11. I’ve already had (one, ones) tea. I don’t want (another, the other). 12. We’ve got the same kind of flat as the Martins, but his is a bit bigger than (our, ours). 13. Alice has blue shoes. (Her, hers) shoes are shiny. 14. Dan bought two folders. He gave (one, ones) to me and kept (another, the other).
Make up sentences of your own. Use one or ones to the model:
1. suitcases (this brown); 2. jackets (that leather); 3. newspapers (these weekly); 4. dictionaries (that French); 5. TV sets (those colour); 6. records (that long-playing); 7. chairs (those soft); 8. notebooks (these pink); 9. beds (that double); 10. typewriters (those portable).
Rephrase the following sentences according to the model using possessive pronouns:
E.g. Fishing is one of my hobbies.
Fishing is a hobby of mine.
1. Jack is one of their friends. 2. Mary lent me one of her English books. 3. Becoming an architect is one of his ambitions. 4. Jane is one of your neighbours. 5. That is one of his pencils. 6. That is one of his favorite songs. 7. Show me one of her dresses, please! 8. This is one of your drawings. 9. This is one of my valuable stamps. 10. These are some of their toys.
Complete this text with reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. (This is the talk of a high school French teacher to a group of new teachers.)
I teach French, but the subject itself isn’t that important. I think my experience applies to all subjects. Your first year may be hard, so teach __________ to use positive self-talk and keep things simple. Remember that a good teacher helps students learn by __________. Recently, John, one of my students, was having trouble teaching _________ how to bake French bread. I encouraged him to keep trying, and in the end he succeeded. As far as discipline goes, I have just a few rules. I tell my students, “Keep __________ busy. Discuss the lessons, but don’t interfere with ________ ‘s work.” Keep teaching materials simple too. I pride ________ on being able to teach anywhere, even on a street corner. Finally, the salary for teachers is not great, but you have a lot of freedom. I run my class by ________ - just the way I want to. You will have to decide for ________ if it’s worth it. I can’t afford to travel to France, but I satisfy ________ with trips to Quebec!
Join the sentences using a suitable relative pronoun to form defining and non-defining clauses.
1. He put the ring through her nose. It was made of gold.
2. I know somebody. Her father has got a tattoo on his back.
3. I read a leaflet. It said body piercing was dangerous.
4. I went to a salon. They did body piercing there.
5. My sister dyed her hair pink. I find it an attractive colour.
6. I saw a girl. She had each part of her face pierced.
7. They opened a beauty salon in St George’s Square. There used to be a perfume shop there.
8. You can see people. They have rings.
9. Mick pointed out his certificate. It was on the wall.
10. I only pierce young people. Their parent or guardian is with them.
11. He marked the area. He had disinfected the skin there.
12. It’ll be a little secret. I won’t share it with anyone.
13. My sister is sixteen. She had her eyebrows pierced yesterday.
14. People spray paint on walls. They are spoiling the environment.
15. Merchandise is sold on the Internet. It has an enormous market.
16. I went to an art gallery. There was an avant-garde exhibition there.
17. Jeans used to be considered working clothes. They became fashionable among young people.
18. Tom’s father plays the cello. Tom wants to be a musician.
19. Some graffiti artists have moved into designing products. They can make a lot of money.
20. He marked the area near the navel. He had disinfected her there.
Fill in the blanks. Use some, something, somebody, somewhere, any, anything, anybody, anywhere, no, nothing, nobody, nowhere, every, everything, everybody, everywhere.
1. He never puts ________ sugar in his tea. 2. ________ children don’t like reading. 3. There’s ________ to be done about it. 4. I must find ________ for you to play badminton with. 5. There’s _________ at the door. I heard the door-bell ring. 6. Do they live ________ near Fleet Street? 7. Don’t worry about your mistake. _______ is all right. 8. I can’t find my shoes. I’ve looked_________. 9. Stop sitting there doing ________ and help me. 10. Can you get me ________ to eat, please? 12. I can do the job alone. I don’t need _______ to help me. 13. I’ve hardly been _________ since last holiday. 14. would you like _________ more coffee?
THE NUMERAL
I. Read and write the following cardinal numerals.
12; 19; 30; 100; 1, 207, 641; 14; 40; 9.90; 236; 12,752,894.
II. Read and write ordinal numerals from the following cardinal numerals.
1; 5; 11; 21; 62; 100; 690; 3; 8; 13; 30; 76; 108; 4; 9; 19; 50.
III. Read and write the following dates:
6/IV.1799 8/XII.1930 12/IV.1961 7/XI.1917 6/III. 1997 31/ VII. 2006.
IV. Translate:
1. Copiii au intrat la scoala doi cite doi. 2. Am citit deja sute de pagini. 3. Numai dupa ce am citit problema de trei ori, am inteles-o. 4. Regele Richard III este unul dintre cei mai singerosi. 5. Capitolul IX mi s-a parut mai interesant.
Write on the blackboard 10 telephone numbers and read them.
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
Point out the words denoting state. Translate the sentences.
1. "I am an old man who is afraid of no one," Anselmo told him. 2. When the soldiers found him ... he was still alive. 3. She was ashamed both for herself and for Constance. 4. Sophia was not aware of this grievance, for Amy had hidden it under her customary… politeness to Sophia. 5. Her little resolute face... was suspiciously eager and aglow. (Galsworthy). 6. "What’s amiss in the Square?" Constance exclaimed. 7. "I wish you wouldn't try to domineer over me!" - "Domineer !" exclaimed Sophia, aghast. 8. A moment later... I noticed that he was asleep. 9. Ben thought the boy was afraid they would be caught doing something wrong.
THE VERB
Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Continuous tense.
1. Cuckoos (not build) nests. They (use) the nests of other birds. 2. You can't see Tom now: he (have) a bath. 3. He usually (drink) coffee but today he (drink) tea. 4. A. What she (do) in the evenings? ~ B. She usually (pray) cards or (witch) TV. 5. I won't go out now as it (rain) and I (not have) an umbrella. 6. The last train (leave) the station at 11.30. 7. He usually (speak) so quickly that I (not understand) him. 8. Ann (make) a dress for herself at the moment. She (make) all her own clothes. 9. Hardly anyone (wear) a hat nowadays. 10. A. I'm afraid I've broken one of your coffee cups. ~ B. Don't worry. I (not like) that set anyway. 11. I (wear) my sunglasses today because the sun is very strong. 12. Tom can't have the newspaper now because his aunt (read) it. 13. I'm busy at the moment. I (redecorate) the sitting room. 14. The kettle (boil) now. Shall I make the tea? 15. A. You (enjoy) yourself or would you like to leave now? ~ B. I (enjoy) myself very much. I (want) to stay to the end. 16. A. How you (get) to work as a rule? ~ B. I usually (go) by bus but tomorrow I (go) in Tom's car. 17. A. Why you (put) on your coat? ~ B. I (go) for a walk. You (come) with me? ~ A. Yes, I'd love to come. You (mind) if I bring my dog? 18. How much you (owe) him? 19. A. You (belong) to your local library? ~ B. Yes, I do. A. You (read) a lot? ~ B. Yes, quite a lot. ~ A. How often you (change) your books? ~ B. I (change) one every day. 20. Mary usually (learn) languages very quickly but she (not seem) able to learn modern Greek. 21. I always, (buy) lottery tickets but I never (win) anything. 22. A. You (like) this necklace? I (give) it to my daughter for her birthday tomorrow. 23. A. I won't tell you my secret unless you (promise) not to tell anyone. ~ B. I (promise). 24. You always (write) with your left hand? 25. A. You (love) him? ~ B. No, I (like) him very much but I (not love) him. 26. A. You (dream) at night? ~ B. Yes, I always (dream) and if I (eat) too much supper I (have) nightmares. 27. The milk (smell) sour. You (keep) milk a long time? 28. These workmen are never satisfied; they always (complain). 29. We (use) this room today because the window in the other room is broken. 30. He always (say) that he will mend the window but he never (do) it. 31. You (know) why an apple (fal1) down and not up? 32. A. You (write) to him tonight? ~ B. Yes, I always (write) to him on his birthday. You (want) to send any message? 33. Tom and Mr Pitt (have) a long conversation. I (wonder) what they (talk) about. 34. A. You (believe) all that the newspapers say? ~ B. No, I (not believe any of it. ~ A. Then why you (read) newspapers? 35. A. This car (make) a very strange noise. You (think) it is all right? ~ B. Oh, that noise (not matter). It always (make) a noise like that. 36. A. The fire (smoke) horribly. I can't see across the room. I (expect) the birds (build) a nest in the chimney. ~ B. Why you (not put) wire across the tops of your chimneys? ~ A. Tom (do) that sometimes but it (not seem) to make any difference.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Continuous tense.
1. A. What Tom (think) of the Budget? ~ B. He (think) it most unfair.~ A. I (agree) with him. 2. A. What this one (cost)? ~ B. It (cost) forty pence. 3. You (hear) the wind? It (blow) very strongly tonight. 4. A. You (see) my car keys anywhere? ~ B. No, I (look) for them but I (not see) them. 5. He never (listen) to what you say. He always (think) about something else. 6. This book is about a man who (desert) his family and (go) to live on a Pacific island. 7. A. You (understand) what the lecturer is saying? ~ B. No, I (not understand) him at all. 8. A. What you (have) for breakfast usually? ~ I usually (eat) a carrot and (drink) a glass of cold water. 9. When the curtain (rise) we (see) a group of workers. They (picket) a factory gate. 10. A. Why you (walk) so fast today? You usually (walk) quite slowly. ~ B. I (hurry) because I (meet) my mother at 4 o'clock and she (not like) to be kept waiting. 11. A. I (wish) that dog would lie down. He (keep) jumping up on my lap.~ B. I (think) he (want) to go for a walk. 12. You (recognize) that man? ~ B. I (think) that I have seen him before but I (not remember) his name. 13 Look at that crowd. I (wonder) what they (wait) for. 14 This message has just arrived and the man (wait) in case you (want) to send a reply. 15. A. Stop! You (not see) the notice? ~ B. I (see) it but I can't read it because I (not wear) my glasses. What it (say)? ~ A. It (say) 'These premises are patrolled by guard dogs'. 16. She always (borrow) from me and she never (remember) to pay me back. 17. You (need) another blanket or you (feel) warm enough? 18. A. It (save) time if you (take) the path through the wood? ~ B. No, it (not matter) which path you take. 19. I (save) up because I (go) abroad in July. 20. I (think) it is a pity you don't take more exercise. You (get) fat. 21. The plane that you (look) at now just (take) off for Paris. 22. Tom never (do) any work in the garden; he always (work) on his car. 23. A. What he (do) to his car now? ~ B. I (think) he (polish) it. 24. That film (come) to the local cinema next week. You (want) to see it? 25. A. How Peter (get) on at school? ~ B. Very well. He (seem) to like the life. 26. A. Why Mrs Pitt (look) so angry? ~ B. Mr Pitt (smoke) a cigarette and (drop) the ash on the carpet. 27. A. This is our itinerary. We (leave) home on the 8th, (arrive) in Paris on the 9th, (spend) the day in Paris, and (set) out that night for Venice. ~ B. That (sound) most interesting. You must tell me all about it when you (get) back. 28. This story is about a boy who (make) friends with a snake which he (find) in his garden. Then he (go) away but he (not forget) the snake and some years later he (return) and (look) for it. 29. He (find) the snake who (recognize) its old friend and (coil) round him affectionately. But, unfortunately, the snake is by now a full-grown boa-constrictor and its embrace (kill) the poor boy. 30. A. The snake (feel) sorry about this? ~ B. I (not know). The story (end) there. 31. A. How you (end) a letter that (begin), 'Dear Sir'? ~ B. I always (put), 'Yours truly', but Tom (prefer) 'Yours faithfully'. 32. A. What the word 'catastrophe' (mean)? ~ B. It (mean) 'disaster'. 33. A. What you (wait) for? ~ B. I (wait) for the shop to open. ~ A. But it (not open) till 9.00. ~ B. I (know) but I (want) to be early, as their sale (start) today. 34. A. Why you (smoke) a cigar, Mrs Pitt? You (not smoke) cigars as a rule. ~ B. I (smoke) it because I (want) the ash. This book (say) that cigar ash mixed with oil (remove) heat stains from wood. 35. A. Who (own) this umbrella? ~ B. I (not know). Everybody (use) it but nobody (know) who (own) it. 36. A. You (mind) if I (ask) you a question? ~ B. That (depend) on the question. ~ A. It (concern) your brother. ~ B. I (refuse) to answer any question about my brother.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or Past Continuous tense.
1. I lit the fire at 6.00 and it (burn) brightly when Tom came in at 7.00. 2. When I arrived the lecture had already started and the professor (write) on the overhead projector. 3. I (make) a cake when the light went out. 4. I didn't want to meet Paul so when he entered the room I (leave). 5. Unfortunately when I arrived Ann just (leave), so we only had time for a few words. 6. He (watch) TV when the phone rang. Very unwillingly he (turn) down the sound and (go) to answer it. 7. He was very polite. Whenever his wife entered the room, he (stand) up. 8. The admiral (play) bowls when he received news of the invasion. He (insist) on finishing the game. 9. My dog (walk) along quietly when Mr Pitt's Pekinese attacked him. 10. When I arrived she (have) lunch. She apologized for starting without me but said that she always (lunch) at 12.30. 11. He always (wear) a raincoat and (carry) an umbrella when he walked to the office. 12. A. What you (think) of his last book? ~ B. I (like) it very much. 13. I (share) a flat with him when we were students. He always (complain) about my untidiness. 14 He suddenly (realize) that he (travel) in the wrong direction. 15 He (play) the guitar outside her house when someone opened the window and (throw) out a bucket of water. 16. I just (open) the letter when the wind (blow) it out of my hand. 17. The burglar (open) the safe when he (hear) footsteps. He immediately (put) out his torch and (crawl) under the bed. 18. When I (look) for my passport I (find) this old photograph. 19. You looked very busy when I (see) you last night. What you (do)? 20. The boys (play) cards when they (hear) their father's step. They immediately (hide) the cards and (take) out their lesson books. 21. He (clean) his gun when it accidentally (go) off and (kill) him. 22. He (not allow) us to go out in the boat yesterday as a strong wind (blow). 23 I still (lie) on the road when I (see) a lorry approaching. 24. Luckily the driver (see) me and (stop) the lorry in time. 25. A. How you (damage) your car so badly? ~ B. I (ruffle) into a lamp-post yesterday. 26. As he (let) into the bus it (start) suddenly and he (fall) backwards on to the road. 27. I (call) Paul at 7.00 but it wasn't necessary because he already (get) up. 28. When he (mend) the fuse he (get) a very bad shock. 29. When I (hear) his knock I (go) to the door and (open) it, but I (not recognize) him at first, because I (nor wear) my glasses. 30. When I came in they (sit) round the fire. Mr Pitt (do) a crossword puzzle, Mrs Pitt (knit), the others (read). Mrs Pitt (smile) at me and (say), 'Come and sit down.' 31. While the guests (dance) thieves (break) into the house and (steal) a lot of fur coats. 32. The next day, as they (know) that the police (look) for them, they (hide) the coats in a wood and (go) off in different directions. 33. She was very extravagant. She always (buy) herself new clothes. 34. Her mother often (tell) her that she (spend) too much money but she never (listen). 35. Whenever the drummer (begin) practising, the people in the next flat (bang) on the wall.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or Past Continuous tense.
1. Mr Smith never (wake) up in time in the mornings and always (get) into trouble for being late; so one day he (go) to town and (buy) an alarm clock. 2. To get home he (have to) go through a field where a bad-tempered bull usually (graze). 3. This bull normally (not chase) people unless something (make) him angry. Unfortunately, as Mr Smith (cross) the field, his alarm clock (go) off. 4. This (annoy) the bull, who immediately (begin) to chase Mr Smith. 5. Mr Smith (carry) an open umbrella as it (rain) slightly. He (throw) the umbrella to the ground and (run) away as fast as he could. 6. The bull (stop) and (begin)to attack the umbrella. While he (do) this Mr Smith escaped. 7. When he (awake) she (sit) by the window. She (look) at something in the street, but when he (call) her she (turn) and (smile) at him. 8. Why you (interrupt) me just now? I (have) a very interesting conversation with Mr Pitt. 9. The murderer (carry) the corpse down the stairs when he (hear) a knock on the door. 10. When I (look) through your books I (notice) that you have a copy of Murder in the Cathedral. 11. As they (walk) along the road they (hear) a car coming from behind them. Tom (turn) round and (hold) up his hand. The car (stop). 12. When I (arrive) at the station Mary (wait) for me. She (wear) a blue dress and (look) very pretty. As soon as she (see) me she (wave) and (shout) something, but I couldn't hear what she (say) because everybody (make) such a noise. 13. The prisoner (escape) by climbing the wall of the garden where he (work). He (wear) blue overalls and black shoes. 14. She said that the car (travel) at 40 k.p.h. when it (begin) to skid. 15. She said that she (not like) her present flat and (try) to find another. 16. While he (make) his speech the minister suddenly (feel) faint. But someone (bring) him a glass of water and after a few minutes he (be able) to continue. 17. A. When I (see) him he (paint) a portrait of his wife. ~ B. You (like) it? ~ A. He only just (start) when I (see) it, so I couldn't judge. 18. A. I (take) my friend to a murder trial the other day. ~ B. Who (be) tried? ~ A. A man called Bill Sykes. ~ A. Was he acquitted? ~ B. I don't know. They still (listen) to the evidence when we (leave). 19. I (be) sorry that I (have to) leave the party early, because I (enjoy) myself. 20. As we (come) here a policeman (stop) us. He (say) that he (look) for some stolen property and (ask) if he could search the car. 21 A. I (see) you yesterday from the bus. Why you (use) a stick? ~ B. I (use) a stick because I had hurt my leg that morning falling off a horse. ~ A. Whose horse you (ride)? 22. The floor was covered with balls of wool. Obviously Mrs Pitt (knit) something. 23. Ann said that she (be) on holiday. I (say) that I (hope) that she (enjoy) herself. 24. While he (water) the flowers it (begin) to rain. He (put) up his umbrella and (go on watering. 25. I just (write) a cheque when I (remember) that I (have) nothing in the bank. 26. I (find) this ring as I (dig) in the garden. It looks very old. I wonder who it (belong) to? 27. When I last (see) her she (hurry) along the road to the station. I (ask) her where she (go) and she (say), 'London', but I don't think she (speak) the truth because there (not be) any train for London at that time. 28. The tailor said, 'Your suit will be ready on Monday.' But when I (call) on Monday he still (work) on it. 29. The teacher (come) into the classroom unusually early and one of the boys, who (smoke) a cigarette, (have) no time to put it out. So he (throw) it into the desk and (hope) for the best. 30. A little later the teacher (notice) that smoke (rise) from this desk. 'You (smoke) when I (come) in?' he (ask). 31. While I (swim) someone (steal) my clothes and I (have to) walk home in my swimsuit. 32. The men (say) that they (work) on the road outside my house and that they (want) some water to make tea. 33. He (say) that he (build) himself a house and that he (think) it would be ready in two years. 34. At 3 a.m. Mrs Pitt (wake) her husband and (say) that she (think) that someone (try) to get into the house. 35. A. Why you (lend) him that book? I still (read) it. ~ B. I'm sorry. I (not know) that you still (read) it. 36. I (come) in very late last night and unfortunately the dog (wake) up and (start) to bark. This (wake) my mother who (come) to the top of the stairs and (say), 'Who is there?' I (say), 'It is me,' but she (not hear) me because the dog (bark) so loudly, so she (go) back to her room and (telephone) the police.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Simple Past tense. In some sentences the Present Perfect Continuous is also possible.
1. A. This is my house. ~ B. How long you (live) here? ~ A. I (live) here since 1970. 2. He (live) in London for: two years and then (go) to Edinburgh. 3. A. You (wear) your hair long when you were at school? ~ B. Yes, my mother (insist) on it. 4. But when I (leave) school I (cut) my hair and (wear) it short ever since. 5. Shakespeare (write) a lot of plays. 6. My brother (write) several plays. He just (finish) his second tragedy. 7 A. I (fly) over Loch Ness last week. ~ B. You (see) the Loch Ness monster? 8. I (not see) him for three years. I wonder where he is. 9. He (not smoke) for two weeks. He is trying to give it up. 10. Chopin (compose) some of his music in Majorca. 11. A. When he (arrive)? ~ B. He (arrive) at 2.00. 12. You (lock) the door before you left the house? 13. I (read) his books when I was at school. I (enjoy) them very much. 14. I can't go out because I (not finish) my work. 15. A. I never (drink) whisky. ~ B. Well, have some now. 16. I (write) the letter but I can't find a stamp. 17. A. The clock is slow. ~ B. It isn't slow, it (stop). 18. Here are your shoes; I just (clean) them. 19. I (leave) home at 8.00 and (get) here at twelve. 20. I (do) this sort of work when I (be) an apprentice. 21. He just (go) out. 22. He (go) out ten minutes ago. 23. A. You (have) breakfast yet? ~ B. Yes, I (have) it at 8.00. 24. I (meet) him last June. 25. You (see) the moon last night? 26. The concert (begin) at 2.30 and (last) for two hours. Everyone (enjoy) it very much. 27. The play just (begin). You are a little late. 28. A. The newspaper (come)? ~ Yes, Ann is reading it. 29. The actors (arrive) yesterday and (start) rehearsals early this morning. 30 It (be) very cold this year. I wonder when it is going to get warmer. 31. Cervantes (write) Don Quixote. 32. We (miss) the bus. Now we'll have to walk. 33. He (break) his leg in a skiing accident last year. 34. Mr Pound is the bank manager. He (be) here for five years. 35. Mr Count (work) as a cashier for twenty-five years. Then he (retire) and (go) to live in the country. 36. A. You (be) here before? ~ B. Yes, I (spend) my holidays here last year. ~ A. You (have) a good time? ~ B. No, it never (stop) raining.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or Simple Past tense. Fill the spaces by repeating the auxiliary used in the preceding verb.
1. A. Where is Tom? ~ B. I (not see) him today, but he (tell) Mary that he'd be in for dinner. 2. A. I (buy) this in Bond Street. ~ B. How much you (pay) for it? ~ A. I (pay) £100. 3. A. Where you (find) this knife? ~ B. I (find) it in the garden. ~ A. Why you (not leave) it there? 4. A. I (lose) my black gloves. You (see) them anywhere? ~ B. No, I'm 'afraid I . . . . When you last (wear) them? ~ A. I (wear) them at the theatre last night. ~ B. Perhaps you (leave) them at the theatre. 5. A. Do you know that lady who just (leave) the shop? ~ B. Yes, that is Miss Thrift. Is she a customer of yours? ~ A. Not exactly. She (be) in here several times but she never (buy) anything. 6. A. He (leave) the house at 8.00. ~ B. Where he (go)? ~ A. I (not see) where he (go). 7. A. He (serve) in the First World War. ~ B. When that war (begin)? ~ A. It (begin) in 1914 and (last) for four years. 8. A. Who you (vote) for at the last election? ~ B. I (vote) for Mr Pitt. ~ A. He (not be) elected, (be) he? ~ B. No, he (lose) his deposit. 9. A. You (like) your last job? ~ B. I (like) it at first but then I (quarrel) with my employer and he (dismiss) me. ~ A. How long you (be) there? ~ B. I (be) there for two weeks. 10. A. I (not know) that you (know) Mrs Pitt. How long you (know) her? ~ B. I (know) her for ten years. 11. That is Mr Minus, who teaches me mathematics, but he (not have) time to teach me much. I only (be) in his class for a week. 12. A. You (hear) his speech on the radio last night? ~ B. Yes, I . . . ~ A. What you (think) of it? 13. A. I (not know) that you (be) here. You (be) here long? ~ B. Yes, I (be) here two months. ~ A. You (be) to the Cathedral? ~ B. Yes, I (go) there last Sunday. 14. A. You ever (try) to give up smoking? ~ B. Yes, I (try) last year, but then I (find) that I was getting fat so I (start) again. 15. A. You (see) today's paper? ~ B. No, anything interesting (happen)? ~ A. Yes, two convicted murderers (escape) from the prison down the road. 16. A. Mary (feed) the cat? ~ B. Yes, she (feed) him before lunch. ~ A. What she (give) him? ~ B. She (give) him some fish. 17. A. How long you (know) your new assistant? ~ B. I (know) him for two years. ~ A. What he (do) before he (come) here? ~ I think he (be) in prison. 18. A. I (not see) your aunt recently. ~ B. No. She (not be) out of her house since she (buy) her colour TV. 19. A. The plumber (be) here yet? ~ B. Yes, but he only (stay) for an hour. ~ A. What he (do) in that time? ~ B. He (turn) off the water and (empty) the tank. 20. A. Where you (be)? ~ B. I (be) out in a yacht. ~ A. You (enjoy) it? ~ B. Yes, very much. We (take) part in a race. ~ A. You (win)? ~ B. No, we (come) in last. 21. A. How long that horrible monument (be) there? ~ B. It (be) there six months. Lots of people (write) to the Town Council asking them to take it away but so far nothing (be) done. 22. A. I just (be) to the film War and Peace. You (see) it? ~ B. No, I . . . . Is it like the book? ~ A. I (not read) the book. ~ B. I (read) it when I (be) at school. ~ A. When Tolstoy (write) it? ~ B. He (write) it in 1868. ~ A. He (write) anything else? 23. A. Hannibal (bring) elephants across the Alps. ~ B. Why he (do) that? ~ A. He (want) to use them in battle. 24. A. Where you (be)? ~ B. I (be) to the dentist. ~ A. He (take) out your bad tooth? ~ B. Yes, he . . . ~ A. It (hurt)? ~ B. Yes, horribly. 25. She (say) that she'd phone me this morning, but it is now 12.30 and she (not phone) yet. 26. A. I just (receive) a letter saying that we (not pay) this quarter's electricity bill. I (not give) you the money for that last week? ~ B. Yes, you. . . but I'm afraid I (spend) it on something else. 27. A. How long you (be) out of work? ~ B. I'm not out of work now. I just (start) a new job. ~ A. How you (find) the job? ~ B. I (answer) an advertisement in the paper. 28. A. You (finish) checking the accounts? ~ B. No, not quite. I (do) about half so far. 29. A. I (cut) my hand rather badly. Have you a bandage? ~ B. I'll get you one. How it (happen)? ~ A. I was chopping some wood and the axe (slip). 30. A. How you (get) that scar? ~ B. I (get) it in a car accident a year ago. 31. A. You (meet) my brother at the lecture yesterday? ~ B. Yes, I . . . . We (have) coffee together afterwards. 32. He (lose) his job last month and since then he (be) out of work. ~ B. Why he (lose) his job? ~ A. He (be) very rude to Mr Pitt. 33. A. What are all those people looking at? ~ B. There (be) an accident. ~ A. You (see) what (happen)? ~ B. Yes, a motor cycle (run) into a lorry. 34. I (phone) you twice yesterday and (get) no answer. 35. Originally horses used in bull fights (not wear) any protection, but for some time now they (wear) special padding. 36. That house (be) empty for a year. But they just (take) down the 'For Sale' sign, so I suppose someone (buy) it.
Complete. Read this entry from Dr.Owen’s field journal about an elephant she calls Grandad. Use the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Progressive form of the verbs in parentheses.
We _________________ (hear) about Grandad since we arrived here in Amboseli Park. He is one of the last “Tuskers.” Two days ago, we finally saw him. His tusks are more than seven feet long. I __________ never __________ (see) anything like them.
Grandad _____________ (live) here for more than sixty years. He _____________ (experience) everything, and he __________________ (survive) countless threats from human beings. Young men ______________ (test) their courage against him, and poachers ______________ (hunt) him for his ivory. His experience and courage __________________ (save) him so far.
For the last two days, he _________________ (move) slowly through the tall grass. He __________ (eat) and ____________ (rest). Luckily, it _________________ (rain) a lot this year, and even the biggest elephants _________________ (find) enough food and water.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous tense. (In some cases either could be used.)
1. We (walk) ten kilometres. 2. We (walk) for three hours. 3. You (walk) too fast. That's why you are tired. 4. I (make) sausage rolls for the party all the morning. 5. A. How many you (make)? ~ B. I (make) 200. 6. That boy (eat) seven ice-creams. 7. He (not stop) eating since he arrived. 8. The driver (drink). I think someone else ought to drive. 9. I (pull) up 100 dandelions. 10. I (pull) up dandelions all day. 11. A. What you (do)? ~ B. We (pick) apples. 12. A. How many you (pick)? ~ B. We (pick) ten basketfuls. 13. I (sleep) on every bed in this house and I don't like any of them. 14. He (sleep) since ten o'clock. It's time he woke up. 15. He (ride); that's why he is wearing breeches. 16. I (ride) all the horses in this stable. 17. What a lovely smell! Mary (make) jam. 18. The students (work) very well this term. 19. I only (hear) from him twice since he went away. 20. I (hear) from her regularly. She is a very good correspondent. 21. I (grease) my car. That's why my hands are so dirty. 22. I (polish) this table all the morning and she isn't satisfied with it yet. 23. I (work) for him for ten years and he never once (say) 'Good morning' to me. 24. He (teach) in this school for five years. 25. I (teach) hundreds of students but I never (meet) such a hopeless class as this. 26. A. Why you (be) so long in the garage? ~ B. The tyres were flat; I (pump) them up. 27. I (pump) up three tyres. Would you like to do the fourth? 28. I (look) for mushrooms but I (not find) any. 29. He (cough) a lot lately. He ought to give up smoking. 30. A. You (hear) the news? Tom and Ann are engaged! ~ B. That's not new; I (know) it for ages! 31. I (try) to finish this letter for the last half-hour. I wish you'd go away or stop talking. I hardly (say) anything. 32. The driver of that car (sound) his horn for the last ten minutes. 33. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the match (be) postponed. 34. He (hope) for a rise in salary for six months but he (not dare) to ask for it yet. 35. Mr Smith, you (whisper) to the student on your right for the last five minutes. You (help) him with his exam paper or he (help) you? 36. A. Why you (make) such a horrible noise? ~ B. I (lose) my key and I (try) to wake my wife by throwing stones at her window. ~ A. You (throw) stones at the wrong window. You live next door.
Put the verbs into the correct form, the Past Perfect or Past Simple.
1. Jane (to wash) all the test-tubes after she (to complete) the experiment. 2. He (to do) the cleaning by 6 o'clock yesterday. 3. After the stewardesses (to serve) lunch to the, passengers, they (to calm) down. 4. I (not to have) my watch, so I (not to know) the exact time. 5. He (to feel) sick because he (to eat) too much. 6. She (to finish) her report, and was feeling rather tired, so she (to go) to bed. 7. By two o'clock he (to answer) all the letters he, (to receive). 8. The bus (to leave) before I (to reach) the bus station. 9. As soon as they (to finish) breakfast, they (to run) out to play. 10. When we (to meet) our friends they (already to know) the news. 11. When you (to call) me, I (not yet to do) the sum. 12. She (to intend) to make a cake for you, but she (to run) out of time. 13. Hardly we (to go) to bed when somebody (to knock) at the door. 14. No sooner she (to come) than she (to fall) ill.
Use the cues in brackets and the Past Perfect Continuous to explain the situations.
Example 1 His arms were sunburnt because he had been sitting in the sun all day.
1. His arms were sunburnt. (sit in the sun all day)
2. She was very tired. (work for hours without a break)
3. Their clothes were muddy. (play football)
4. She was fired. (not come to work on time)
5. She was very angry. (wait for her boyfriend for half an hour)
6. His ear ached. (talk on the phone for hours)
7. He was covered in oil. (repair his car all afternoon)
8. She was scared stiff. (watch a thriller on TV)
Write two explanations for each situation (1-5), one in the Past Perfect, and one in the Past Perfect Continuous.
Example 1 She had been eating too many sweets.
She had dropped her keep-fit classes.
1. Sharon put on five pounds.
2. Steve was feeling down.
3. Jack’s shirt was torn.
4. Ann failed her final exam.
5. Emily and Tessa were very excited.
Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. We couldn’t open the door because it (snow) heavily all night. 2. She looked shocked and she said she (see) a UFO. 3. Billy had a black eye and Joe’s lip was cut – they (fight). 4. John decided to complain as his neighbours (have) parties every day for two weeks. 5. Jill looked great – she (lose) a few pounds and (put on) a smart evening dress. 6. Sheila’s eyes were red and swollen as if she (cry) all night.
Use the Present Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. It is midnight. I (study) for five straight hours. No wonder I'm getting tired. 2. It was midnight. I (study) for five straight hours. No wonder I was getting tired. 3. Jack suddenly realized that the teacher was asking him a question. He couldn’t answer because he (daydream) for the last ten minutes. 4. Wake up! You (sleep) long enough. It’s time to get up. 5. At least two hundred people were waiting in line to buy tickets to the game. Some of them (stand) in line for more than four hours. We decided not to try to get tickets for ourselves.
Put the verbs into the correct form, the Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Simple or Past Continuous.
1. The workers (to be) on a strike for three weeks when the agreement on pay (to be reached). 2. When she got results of her medical tests, she realised, that she (be feeling) ill since she (to be) on holiday. 3. The door was unlocked. She (to wonder) who (leave) the door open. 4. He (to play) football when the ball (to hit) his head. 5. He (to drive) to work for half an hour when suddenly his car (to break) down. 6. When he arrived at the office he (to discover) that he (to leave) all the necessary papers at home. 7. She looked tired. She (to type) letters all morning. 8. Yesterday afternoon it (still to rain) when I (to get) home. 9. He (to clean) the car when the phone rang, so he (not to answer) it. 10. When I (to be) little, my mother (to use) to feed me. 11. Jane’s clothes were wet. She (to wash) her dog. 12. Jerry (to be) nervous, for he (never to flow) in an aeroplane before. 13. I (never to like) going to the cinema on my own when I was a teenager. 14. Kate -(to dance), but when she saw a newcomer she (to stop).
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense, the Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Simple or Past Continuous.
1. He (give) me back the book, (thank) me for lending it to him and (say) that he (enjoy) it very much; but I (know) that he (not read) it because most of the pages (be) still uncut. 2. When he (see) his wife off at the station, he (return) home as he (not have) to be at the airport till 9.30. 3. He (not have) to pack, for his wife already (do) that for him and his case (be) ready in the hall. 4. He (not have) to check the doors and windows either, for his wife always (do) that before she (leave) the house. 5. All he (have) to do (be) to decide whether or not to take his overcoat with him. In the end he (decide) not to. 6. At 8.30 he (pick) up his case, (go) out of the house and (slam) the door behind him. 7. Then he (feel) in his pockets for the key, for his wife (remind) him to double-lock the front door. 8. When he (search) all his pockets and (find) no key he (remember) where it (be). 9. He (leave) it in his overcoat pocket. 10. Then he (remember) something else; his passport and tickets (be) in his overcoat pocket as well. 11. I (arrive) in England in the middle of July. I (be told) that England (be) shrouded in fog all year round, so I (be) quite surprised to find that it was merely raining. 12. I (ask) another passenger, an Englishman, about the fog and he (say) that there (not be) any since the previous February. 13. If I (want) fog, he said, I (come) at quite the wrong time. 14. However, he (tell) me that I could buy tinned fog at a shop in Shaftsbury Avenue. 15. He (admit) that he never (buy) fog there himself but (assure) me that they (sell) good quality fog and that it (not be) expensive. I suppose he was joking. 16. When the old lady (return) to her flat she (see) at once that burglars (break) in during her absence, because the front door (be) open and everything in the flat (be) upside down. 17. The burglars themselves (be) no longer there, but they probably only just (leave) because a cigarette was still burning on an ornamental table. 18. Probably they (hear) the lift coming up and (run) down the fire escape. 19. They (help) themselves to her whisky too but there (be) a little left, so she (pour) herself out a drink. 20. She (wonder) if they (find) her jewellery and rather (hope) that they had. 21. The jewellery (be given) her by her husband, who (die) some years before. 22. Since his death she (not have) the heart to wear it, yet she (not like) to sell it. 23. Now it (seem) that fate (take) the matter out of her hands; and certainly the insurance money would come in handy. 24. I (put) the £5 note into one of my books; but next day it (take) me ages to find it because I (forget) which book I (put) it into. 25. A woman (come) in with a baby, who she (say) just (swallow) a safety pin. 26. I (think) my train (leave) at 14.33, and (be) very disappointed when I (arrive) at 14.30 and (learn) that it just (leave). 27. I (find) later that I (use) an out-of-date timetable. 28. He (park) his car under a No Parking sign and (rush) into the shop. When he (come) out of the shop ten minutes later the car (be) no longer there. 29. He (wonder) if someone (steal) it or if the police (drive) it away. 30. It (be) now 6 p.m.; and Jack (be) tired because he (work) hard all day. 31. He (be) also hungry because he (have) nothing to eat since breakfast. 32. His wife usually (bring) him sandwiches at lunch time, but today for some reason she (not come). 33. He (keep) looking at her, wondering where he (see) her before. 34. I (look) out before I (go) to bed and (see) a man standing on the opposite pavement watching the house. 35. When I (get up) the following morning he (be) still there, and I (wonder) whether he (stay) there all night or if he (go) away and (come) back.
Choose the best variant:
a) He’s gone/He’d gone/He was going shopping. He’ll be back soon.
b) We were late and the match started/had started/has started.
c) Teresa has never seen/never saw/was never seeing this film before.
d) They were having/had/have had a picnic when it started to rain.
e) Did you do/have you done/Were you doing the washing-up yet?
f) He’s wet because he swam/he’s been swimming/he had swum.
g) I crashed/I’d crashed/I’ve crashed your car last night. I’m really sorry.
h) Had you met/have you met/Did you meet Jim Ward yesterday?
i) I’m/I was/I’ve been in Rome since June.
j) The dogs were barking and the kids had laughed/were laughing/have laughed as I walked into the room.
Complete the text with appropriate past tenses of the verb in brackets.
Ken Coates (1) was enjoying (enjoy) his 52nd birthday at the King’s Arms in Aston. He (2) _____________ (play) in a local pool championship in a room at the back of the pub. Ken (3) ________________ (play) well for half an hour and (4) _____________ (win) three of the first five games. He (5) __________ (put) down the glass he (6) __________ (drink) from and (7) ____________ (get) ready to pot the black to win the final game when his false teeth (8) ______________ (drop out). Unfortunately, instead of potting the ball, he (9) ___________ (pot) his own false teeth! Ken’s wife, Alice, who (10) _____________ (watch) the championship all night, immediately (11) _________________ (rush) to help her husband. She (12) _____________ (put) her hand in the pocket to fish out the false teeth when disaster (13) ______________ (strike). Alice’s hand got stuck in the pocket and she (14) _____________ (can not) get in out again. Finally, after Ken (15) ____________ (make) an emergency phone call, the fire officers (16) _______________ (arrive) on the scene. With the help of a power saw and some washing-up liquid, they (17) ________ (free) Alice’s hand. ‘Poor Ken, he (18) ________________ (try) to win the championship for years’, said a friend. ‘In the replay, Ken (19) _______________ (play) terribly. I think he (20) _______________ (worry) about his teeth again’.
From the given situation, make up a "chain story." One person begins the story; then others continue the story in turn using certain cue words.
Example: (Pierre) had a terrible day yesterday. The trouble began early in
the morning. His alarm clock rang at 7:00.
Cue: when
StudentA: When his alarm clock rang, he got out of bed and stepped on a
snake. He was nearly frightened to death, but the snake slithered
away without biting him.
Cue: after
Student B: After the snake left, Pierre got dressed in a hurry and ran
downstairs to have breakfast.
Cue: while
Student C: While he was running downstairs, he fell and broke his arm. etc.
Work in pairs. Use the cues and the past tenses to write about a disastrous day trip.
• Mr and Mrs Smith never (be) abroad so (decide) to go on a “no passport” day trip to France
• they (go) through Channel Tunnel and (arrive) in Boulogne – first (go) shopping then sightseeing – in the afternoon they (decide) to visit some friends in Lille – they (go) to the station
• (not learn) French at school so (not understand) the announcements at the station – (get) on the wrong train
• while they (have) a nap on the train, it (cross) the border with Germany
• German police (ask) for their passports – they (say) they (leave) them at home – the police (put) them on a train back to Boulogne
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Continuous or the Future Simple. The be going to form could be used here instead of the Present Continuous, but for the sake of simplicity students are advised to use only the two tenses first mentioned.)
1. I am sure that I (recognize) him. 2. I (see) her tomorrow. 3. He (play) in a tennis match on Friday. 4. She (come) back on Monday. 5. I (go) again next year. 6. We (know) tonight. 7. You pay and I (owe) you the money. 8. I believe) it when I see it. 9. I (have) my car repainted next week. 10. I hope that you (have) a good time tomorrow. 11. His speech (be) broadcast tonight. 12. The window-cleaner (come) at eight tomorrow. 13. Tom (catch) the 7.40 train. 14. A. Where you (meet) them? ~ B. I (meet) them at midnight in the middle of the wood. 15. What horse you (ride) tomorrow? 16. Look! I've broken the teapot. What Mrs Pitt (say)? ~ B. She (not mind); she never liked that one. 17. I've left the light on. It (matter)? 18. He (not forget) to come. 19. He (leave) in a few days. 20. I (remember) it. 21. If you drop that bottle it (break). 22. I never (forgive) him. 23. I'm sure that you (like) him. 24. They (lay) the foundations next week. 25. You (see) a signpost at the end of the road. 26. A. He has cut my hair too short. ~ B. Don't worry; it (grow) again very quickly. 27. You (understand) when you are older. 28. The cat (scratch) you if you pull its tail. 29. I (be) back at 8.30. 30. If he doesn't work hard he (not pass) his exam. 31. She (go) on a cruise next summer. 32. I (move) to anew flat next week. 33. A. I am sorry that the child saw the accident. ~ B. I don't think it matters. He soon (forget) all about it. 34. I (wait) here till he comes back. 35. He (not write) to you unless you write to him. 36. There (be) a big meeting here tomorrow. 37. A. The fire has gone out! ~ B. So it has. I (go) and get some sticks. 38. A. Did you remember to book seats? ~ B. Oh no, I forgot. I (telephone) for them now. 39. A. He has just been taken to hospital with a broken leg. ~ B. I'm sorry to hear that. I (send) him some grapes. 40. I've hired a typewriter and I (learn) to type. 41. I see that you have got a loom. You (do) some weaving?
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (present or future).
1. When he (return) I'll give him the key. 2. He'll be ready as soon as you (be). 3. I'll stay in bed till the clock (strike) seven. 4. She will be delighted when she (hear) this. 5. When the laundry comes I (have) some clean handkerchiefs. 6. I shan't buy tomatoes till the price (come) down. 7. Stay here till the lights (turn) green. 8. When it (get) cold I'll light the fire. 9. The lift (not start) until you press that button. 10. She'll have to behave better when she (go) to school. 11. When you look at yourself in the glass you (see) what I mean. 12. He (be) here before you go. 13. I (lend) you my cassette recorder whenever you want it. 14. He (wake) up when we turn the lights on. 15. He (ring) us up when he arrives in England? 16. He will wash up before he (go) to bed. 17. I won't come to London till the bus strike (be) over. 18. I (give) the children their dinner before he (come) home. 19. They will be astonished when they (see) how slowly he works. 20. I'll pay you when I (get) my cheque. 21. I (go) on doing it until he tells me to stop. 22. I'll buy that house when I (have) enough money. 23. You (fall) rapidly through the air till your parachute opens. 24. We'll have to stay here till the tide (go) out. 25. When the Queen (arrive) the audience will stand up. 26. When the fog (lift) we'll be able to see where we are. 27. The refrigerator (go on) making that noise till we have it repaired. 28. As soon as the holidays begin this beach (become) very crowded. 29. The car (not move) till you take the brake off. 30. The alarm bell (go on) ringing till you press this button. 31. As soon as she (learn) to type I'll get her a job. 32. Look before you (leap). 33. We (have) to stay on this desert island till we can repair our boat. 34. Don't count on a salary increase before you actually (get) it. 35. When winter (begin) the swallows will flyaway to a warmer country. 36 We can't make any decision till he (arrive) here.
Read this paragraph. Find and correct seven mistakes in the use of the Future Continuous.
In the future robots will be perform more and more tasks for humans.
This will be having both positive and negative effects. On the one hand, while robots will be doing the boring and dangerous jobs, humans will be devoting more time to interesting pursuits. In this way robots is going to be making life a lot easier for humans. On the other hand, the widespread of robots is going create a lot of future unemployment. People will loosing their jobs as robots fill their positions. And some robots could even become dangerous. I’m afraid that in the not-too-distant future, robots will be operating nuclear power stations! And before too long, robots are going to be fight in wars. Although, on second thought, that will be better than humans killing each other!
II. Complete the sentences. Use the Future Perfect or the Future Perfect Continuous. Choose between affirmative and negative.
1. By 2012, they (to buy) ____________________________ a new car.
2. By 2015, they (to live) ____________________________ in their own house for three years.
3. By Travis’s first birthday, Tom (to graduate) _______________________________
4. By 2017, (to attend) ___________________________________ school for four years.
5. By 2019, they (to buy) __________________________________ another car.
6. They (drive) ______________________________________ their old car for eight years by then.
7. By 2020, Linda (open) __________________________________ her business.
8. They (save) _________________________________________ for two years by 2020.
9. By retirement, the couple (accomplish) __________________________________ a lot.
III. Continue the sentences: Future Continuous or Future Perfect.
1. Tomorrow afternoon I’m going to play tennis from 3 o’clock until 4:30. So at 4 o’clock tomorrow I .......
2. You want your friend to give Tom a message this afternoon.(you/ visit/Tom this afternoon?)
3. Tom and Ann are going to the cinema. The film begins at 7:30 and it is already 7: 20. And it will take them 20 minutes to get there. When they get there (the film/already/start).
4. Tom is on holiday. He has very little money and he is spending too much too quickly. Before the end of this holiday (he/spend/all his money).
5. You want to use your friend’s typewriter tomorrow evening. (you/use/your typewriter tomorrow evening?)
6. John came to Britain from the US nearly three years ago. Next Monday it will be exactly three years since he arrived. Next Monday (he/be/here/ exactly three years.)
Complete these predictions about the world in 2020 by putting the verbs in brackets either in the Future Perfect or Future Continuous.
1. people (use) solar energy extensively
2. people (use) up all natural resources of oil
3. people (travel) into space on a regular basis
4. traditional farms (disappear)
5. many new galaxies (discover)
IV. Fill in with an appropriate future tense.
1. We (to work) ____________________________ hard this time tomorrow.
2. He (to pass) ____________________________ his examinations before you return from Chisinau.
3. They (to learn) ___________________________ English and German for ten months by the first of July.
4. The expedition (leave) ___________________________ for the North by April.
5. She (to take) ______________________________ a music lesson at this tomorrow.
6. By 6 she (to take) ________________________________ her lesson.
7. She (to take) ___________________________________ two lessons this week.
8. At 5:30 she (to take) ________________________________ her lesson for forty minutes.
9. They (to build) ________________________________ a new club in our street.
10. They (to build) __________________________________ it when you are in the country in summer.
Comment on the use of the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous in the past.
1. He knew she would work at the library in the evenings.
He knew she would be working at the library at 9 in the morning.
He knew she would have done her work by 4 o’clock.
He knew she would have been working for some hours before he came to the library.
2. She said she would begin typing the article at 10 o’clock in the morning. The article is not long. She said she would still be typing it at 11 o’clock; she would have been typing it for two hours by 12; and she would have finished typing the article by 12:30.
EXERCISES (different tenses)
Match the sentences (1-7) with the situations (a-g)
1. Have you been playing football in the rain again?
2. I play football every day.
3. I’m playing a football game on the computer.
4. I’m playing a football match at 10 o’clock.
5. I’ve already played and won 20 games.
6. I was playing a football when I fell badly.
7. I had played 40 games when I was injured for the first time.
a) a professional footballer talking about his job
b) a patient talking to the doctor
c) someone giving an excuse why they can’t help someone now
d) someone saying how good they are
e) someone explaining why they can’t go shopping the next day
f) a retired footballer looking back on his career
g) a mother to a boy whose clothes are muddy
Write the correct tense form of the verbs in brackets:
a) Charlie (drive)_____________________________________when the accident happened.
b) What on earth (you/do)_______________________________? You are covered in mud!
c) Marta (not/ride)______________________________a camel before and she was terrified.
d) (you/ever/see)________________________the Black Sea? I hear it’s incredible beautiful.
e) How long (you/learn) ______________________________________________ English?
f) Our hamster (die) _________________________________________________last week.
g) Shakespeare (write) _____________________________________poems as well as plays.
h) I (just/speak) ______________________________________to Jan. She told me the news.
i) The jury (not/agree) ___________________________________with the judge’s decision.
j) I (read) ____________________________________________a book when she called me.
Open the brackets and put the verbs into the correct form:
Angus Pym____________ (wake) up on the dot of six o’clock, as he always________(do), no matter where he _________(be) or what he _________(do)_____________the previous day. His first thought was the realization that he ________________still (wear) shirt and trousers, and when his eyes______________(fall) on the reports piled up around him on the bed, the events of the previous evening_____________(come) back to him. He________(go) to his club for supper, ____________just (finish) his steak and______________(look) forward to a splendid turkey when his meal was rudely interrupted by a call from M., his controller.
After an ice-cold shower, Pym _____________ (think) carefully about which suit to put on. He________ (see) M at nine o’clock that morning, and he ________(want) to make a good impression. Glancing at himself in the mirror, he_____________ (notice) that he___________(put) on weight recently. He______________(have) to pay more attention to his diet in the future.
An hour later, as he___________(drive) through the rush-hour traffic on his way to meet M, Pym ________________carefully(consider) the contents of the files. So Zircon, the organization which sought to control the free western world, was back in business? Its founder, Leon Brown, was dead. Pym ______________ (know) this, because he _________________personally (arranged) his death. But who_________________ (control) Zircon now? Doubtless M ______________ (tell) him.
Correct any mistakes where it is necessary:
a) Have you seen Martin yesterday?
b) When I reached the station, the bus already left.
c) It snows all day. I’m fed up with it.
d) John is here since last Wednesday
e) Did you ever go to China?
f) At three o’clock last night, the children slept.
g) Bill was having a shower when the phone was ringing.
h) Fred is not here. He has been to Geneva.
i) I wasn’t understanding what the teacher said today.
j) Oh no! You just broke my computer!
k) When have you stopped drinking coffee?
l) “You looked tired last night”. “Yes, I had been”.
m) Did the rain stop yet?
n) They have been knowing each other for a couple of weeks.
o) When I got home, Jym is playing the piano and Sam watches TV.
Complete the text with the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets.
I suppose that, in many ways, I (1) _______________ (be) lucky since the day I was born. I was born two months premature and I was very ill, but somehow I (2) ____________ (survive). Then, when I was three, I (3) __________ (fall) into a pond on a farm I (4) _______________ (stay) at. My mum (5) ____________ (go) into hospital for an operation and some friends (6) ___________ (look after) me at the time. Luckily, a man (7) ____________ (work) near the pond and he (8) ____________ (pull) me out! Now I’m in my last year at school and all my friends (9) ___________ (think) I’m very Lucky. For example, I (10) ___________ (win) money on the lottery four or five times and I usually (11) ________ (beat) everybody at cards.
I can’t say I’m very hard-working, but I (12) ______________ (do) well at exams – the right questions always come up. I’m also Lucky in Love and I (13) ___________ (go out) with an amazing girl for the last six months. I hope my Luck (14) ________________ (continue) in the future.
I (15) (take) my university entrance exams in the summer and as soon as I (16) ______________ (finish) them, I (17) ___________ (travel) for a couple of months. Then, hopefully, I (18) ___________ (study) architecture at university.
Take turns to say the sentences about your life using the time expressions below.
Example: I usually play basketball on Tuesday night.
usually, never, now, this weekend, last year, in the future, next year, in 19999, for three weeks, since, at ten o’clock, twice a week, when, while, recently, for a year now.
ACTIVE TO PASSIVE
Put the following into the passive voice. The agent should not be mentioned except in numbers 11 and 28.
1. You should open the wine about three before you use it.
2. Previous climbers had cut steps in the ice.
3. Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit.
4. We use this room only on special occasions.
5. You must not hammer nails into the walls without permission.
6. In some districts farmers use pigs to find truffles.
7. Someone switched on a light and opened the door.
8. Somebody had slashed the picture with a knife.
9. They are pulling down the old theatre.
10. Why didn’t they mend the roof before it fell in?
11. The mob broke all the shop windows in recent riots.
12. The librarian said that they were starting a new system because people were not returning books.
13. The police asked each of us about his movements on the night of the crime.
14. Someone will serve refreshments.
15. People must not leave bicycles in the hall.
16. Members may keep books for three weeks. After that they must return them.
17. The burglars had cut an enormous hole in the steel door.
18. I’ve bought a harp. They are delivering it this afternoon. (Do not change the first sentence)
19. Someone has already told him to report for duty at six.
20. They rang the church bells as a flood warning.
21. No one can do anything unless someone gives us more information.
22. People are spending far more money on food now than they spent ten years ago.
23. The organizers will exhibit the paintings till the end of the month.
24. They will say nothing more about the matter if someone returns the stolen gun.
25. It is high time someone told him to stop behaving like a child.
26. A thief stole my dog and brought him back only when I offered $20 reward for him.
27. The judge gave him two weeks in which to pay the fine.
28. They make these artificial flowers of silk.
Put the following into the passive, mentioning the agent where necessary.
1. They feed the seals at the zoo twice a day.
2. Who wrote it?
3. Compare clothes which we have washed with clothes which any other laundry has washed.
4. He expected us to offer the job.
5. They showed her the easiest way to do it.
6. Lighting struck the old oak.
7. Titian couldn’t have painted it as people didn’t wear that style of dress till after his death.
8. A jellyfish stung her.
9. The author has written a special edition for children.
10. Judges used to carry sweet herbs as a protection against jail-fever.
11. What did he write it with? ~
He wrote it with a matchstick dipped in blood.
12. An uneasy silence succeeded the shot.
13. Did the idea interest you?
14. The lawyer gave him the details of his uncle’s will.
15. Beavers make these dams.
16. They used to start these engines by hand. Now they start them by electricity.
17. Most people opposed this.
18. Students are doing a lot of the work.
19. The Prime Minister was to have opened the dry dock.
20. They recommended opening new factories in the depressed area. (Use should.)
21. The closure of the workshops will make a lot of men redundant.
22. Anyone with the smallest intelligence could understand these instructions.
23. We will not admit children under sixteen.
24. Boys of sixteen to eighteen are to man this training ship.
25. A rainstorm flooded the gypsies’ camp.
26. The howling of wolves kept him awake all night.
27. They suggested making the tests easier. (Use should.)
28. Children couldn’t have done all this damage.
PASSIVE TO ACTIVE
Turn the following sentences into the active voice. Where no agent is mentioned one must be supplied.
1. This speed limit is to be introduced gradually.
2. Why don’t you have your eyes tested? (... get an optician to ...)
3. The runways are being lengthened at all the main airports.
4. It is now 6 a.m. and at most of the hospitals in the country patients are being wakened with cups of tea.
5. Byron is said to have lived on vinegar and potatoes.
6. By tradition, any sturgeon that are caught by British ships must be offered to the Queen.
7. This notice has been altered.
8. The owners went away last March and since then their houseboat has been used continuously by squatters. (Use a continuous tense and omit continuously).
9. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the towline broke.
10. Have a lift put in and then you won’t have to climb up all these stairs.
11. Last year a profit of two million pounds was made in the first six months but this was cancelled by a loss of seventeen million pounds which was made in the second six months.
12. Evening dress will be worn.
13. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were forbidden to land.
14. Someone will have to be found to take her place.
15. He was made to surrender his passport.
16. This rumor must have been started by our opponents.
17. My paintings are to be exhibited for the first time by New Arts Gallery.
18. This scientific theory has now been proved to be false.
19. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged today.
20. The house where the dead man was found is being guarded by the police to prevent it from being and the interfered with.
21. Why wasn’t the car either locked or put into the garage?
22. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the government on roads.
23. Your money could be put to good use instead of being left idle in the bank.
Rewrite this newspaper report using passive structures when they are more suitable.
Museums used to be dull and dusty places. Then along came a man called Frank Gehry.
They awarded Frank Gehry, the architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture last week. People have called him a 17th century Baroque architect of the 21st century. His latest building is the Experience Music Project in Seattle. He designed it to look like an electric guitar that someone had melted. Not surprisingly, when they opened the building, someone labeled him the King of Baroque’n’Roll.
Use the passive form of the verbs in the first set of parentheses to complete this report. Include the agent only if absolutely necessary.
Modern Reader Newsletter
Do you know...?
• Modern Reader (found) (A. J. Thompson) ten years ago.
• At first it (print) (the printer) only in English.
• Today it (publish) (the publisher) in three foreign-language editions.
• It (read) (readers) in more than ten countries.
• Since 2000, twenty new employees (hire) (our international offices)
• Back at home, ten new computers (purchase) (the company) last month.
• They (use) (our writers) to write our award-winning articles.
• Modern Reader (advertise) (advertisers) all over the world.
• Our editorial staff (interview) (Live at Ten TV) last month.
• The interview (see) (millions of viewers).
Complete the text with the verbs in brackets in a suitable form, active or passive.
Virtual Reality Art
Examples of the new “virtual reality art” (1) ____________ (show) at the Inter Communication centre in Tokio. “The Cave” (2) ____________ (build) at a cost of over $1 million. The viewer (3) _________ (put on) special glasses and (4) ____________ (confront) by a wooden puppet. If the puppet (5) ___________ (move), the three dimensional world (6) ___________ (twist) and (7) ___________ (turn). This moving world (8) ________________ (accompany) bay music and sounds. A similar exhibit (9) _________ (build) in the USA. Computer graphics (10) _____________ (combine) with 3-D images WHCH (11) _________ (project) on the walls and ceiling, and the viewer (12) ___________ (take) on a tour of what seems like another dimension. As one expert (13) ________________ (point out) recently, the rise of the “Nintendo generation” (14) ______________ (cause) art and game cultures (15) ___________ (merge).
MODAL VERBS
Complete these paragraphs with can, could, or be able to. Choose between affirmative and negative.
1. Steve is enjoying his computer class. Two weeks ago, he __________ even use the mouse, but now he __________ edit his homework. By next week, he ________ do research on the Internet.
2. Eleni misses her family in Greece. She __________ visit them for years, but they just got an e-mail account, so now they _________ keep in touch daily.
3. I _________ understand how to set up a presentation. The software instructions do not help. I think I’ll take a professional development course. In a few months maybe I __________ make that presentation.
4. Mike and I _________ get along since we started this business. He ________ work alone (he needs people), and I __________ work in a group (I have to work alone). I hope we __________ work out our problem soon.
5. We have been looking for him for three hours, but we _____ not find him. 6. If you enter this room, you ____ see very interesting things.
Find the mistake in each item and correct it.
1. Can he comes on the train with me or does he need a ticket?
2. I’m sorry, he couldn’t. Only passengers can board the train.
3. Could I changed seats with you?
4. Yes, you could. Go right ahead. I’m getting off soon.
5. Mom, may I to have some candy? I’m hungry.
6. No, you mayn’t. I’m sorry, but you’ve already had enough candy.
7. Do you mind if he play his computer game?
8. Yes, I do. He can play if he wants. It won’t bother me.
9. I’m still hungry. Can we’ll get a sandwich soon?
10. Not at all. We can go find the club car.
Read this student’s journal. Find and correct seven mistakes in expressing ability.
Today in my Will B. Happy Teamwork course, I learned about work styles – “Drivers” and “Enthusiasts”. I’m a driver, so I can make decisions, but I’m not able listen to other people’s ideas. The Enthusiast in our group can communicates well, but you can’t depend on her. Now I understand what was happening in my business class last year, when I couldn’t felt comfortable with my team. I thought that they all talked too much and didn’t able to communicate efficiently. I could get an A for the course, but it was hard. I can do a lot more alone, but some jobs are too big for that. Our instructor says that soon the Drivers will able to listen and the Enthusiast could be more dependable.
Read these requests from Marcia’s boss and Marcia’s answers (in dark print). Find and correct the mistakes in making and responding to requests.
From: Marcia Jones
To: John Sanchez
The meetings are going well but they have been extended a day. Could you call please Doug Rogers to try to reschedule our sale meeting?
Not at all. I’ll do it right away.
We’ll need three extra copies of the monthly sales report. Would you ask Ann to take care of that?
Yes, I would. (Ann – Could you do this?)
I hate to ask, but would you mind to work on Saturday? We’ll need the exam time to go over the new information I’ve got.
Sorry, but I couldn’t. My in-laws are coming for a visit. But Bob Lin says he can come in to the office to help out.
One last thing. I was going to pick up those new business cards, but I won’t be back in time. Would you mind doing that for me?
Yes, I would. I’ll stop at the printer’s during my lunch break.
Read this advice for job seekers. Complete it with the correct words.
Want or need a new job? When’s the best time to start looking? Right now!
You (ought to/‘d better not) delay, or you’ll start to feel ‘stuck’.
These tips will help:
• A lot of people wait until after the holidays to look for a job. That means less competition for you right now. You shouldn’t/ should wait!
• Too busy at work to schedule interviews? Early morning interviews have fewer interruptions. You should/‘d better ask for interviews before nine o’clock.
• If you are laid off, you‘d better/ shouldn’t take a lower-paying job just to get work. If your new salary is low, your employer won’t appreciate your skills. If possible, you‘d better not/ should ask for a salary that matches your skills.
• However, money isn’t everything! You ought to/’d better not take a position with a company you dislike, or you won’t do a good job there.
• Don’t talk about salary too soon. You‘d better/ shouldn’t wait – learn about the job and talk about your skills first.
VI. Kim’s boss has invited him to dinner at his home. Complete Kim’s conversation with his friend. Use should, ought to, or had better and the words in parentheses. Choose between affirmative and negative.
K: (how/ dress?) ___________________ In a suit?
S: You don’t have to wear a suit. (look/ neat) ________________ , but you can wear casual clothes.
K: (What time/ arrive?) ___________________
S: It’s really important to be on time. Your boss and his wife are expecting you at 7:00, so (arrive after 7:15) ___________________ . It’s OK to be a little late, but don’t male them wait too long for you!
K: (bring a gift?) _____________________
S: Yes, but get something small. (buy an expensive gift) _________________ . It would embarrass them.
K: (What/ buy?) _____________________
S: I think (get some flowers) ______________________.
Read this letter. Find and correct five mistakes in expressing advice.
Dear son,
We are so happy to hear about your new job. Congratulations! Just remember – you shouldn’t work too hard. The most important thing right now is your schoolwork. Maybe you only oughta work two days a week instead of three. Also, we think you’d better ask your boss for time off during exams. That way you’ll have plenty of time to study. You would better give this a lot of careful thought, OK? Please take good care of yourself. You’d not better start skipping meals, and you definitely shouldn’t worked at night. At your age, you will better get a good night’s sleep. Do you need anything from home? Should we send any of your books? Let us know:
With love,
Mom and Dad.
Find and correct six mistakes in expressing necessity.
Dear Sara,
How are you doing? We’ve been here about six weeks. It’s strange living in the suburbs.
There’s no public transportation, so you’ve get to drive everywhere. I had to signs up for driver’s ed this semester so I can get my license by summertime. It’s the law here that everyone musts wear a seat belt. I used to hate to buckle up, but with the traffic here, I have changed my mind. There are a lot of freeways, and you’ve gotta know how to change lanes with a lot of fast traffic. Even my Mom have had to get used to it. Dad works at home, so he hasn’t has to do a lot of driving.
I’m having a lot of trouble with “Doom”. You got to write to me and tell me how to get past the fifth level!
Jim
Translate the following sentences paying attention to the difference between the modal verbs may and must.
1. What you tell me may be true. 2. There must be something wrong in it. 3. But you might not be speaking the truth. 4. Something might turn up. One never knows. 5. The boy must be forty now. 6. “I can see you must be very upset”, she said gently. 7. You must be imagining this. 8. I hope I may call on you again. 9. Well, it must have been about ten. I can’t say exactly. It might have been later. 10. “This man must be mad”, the traveler thought. 11. He must have gone back to town last night or early this morning. 12. The window may have been left open after his departure. 13. There may be something missing. 14. You must be starving. 15. Much valuable time may have been lost.
Use can’t + Present/Perfect Infinitive to express impossibility.
Model: John can’t have broken another window.
1. Jack broke another window. 2. I don’t think this boy speaks Japanese. 3. I don’t think the pupils have finished all the exercises. 4. It’s impossible for that man to have said that. 5. She knows our hiding place. 6. Peter saw a huge fish. 7. The girls made many mistakes. 8. I don’t think the boys are in the garden.
Express past possibility by using may/might + have + Past Participle or must + have + Past Participle according to the meaning:
1. Do you know if it rained in the mountains? 2. Margaret didn’t bring me the book. (to forget it).3. Do you know if Mary arrived? 4. Do you know if the children saw that film? 5. The cake is not on the table. (the boy/to eat it). 6. Do you know if Matthew learnt that poem by heart? 7. The little girl didn’t find her key. (to lose it). 8. Do you know if that patient recovered? 9. Albert didn’t want to go to the cinema. (to see the film). 10. Our friends haven’t arrived yet. (to miss the train). 11. Do you know if the kids fell asleep? 12. The dog raised its head. (to hear us). 13. Jack didn’t buy that car. (to be too expensive). 14. Do you know if the boy won the match? 15. The old woman was very sad. (to hear the bad news). 16. His neighbour had a terrible accident. (to fall asleep while driving his car). 17. The ball is no longer under the tree. (somebody/to take it). 18. Do you know if Jane bought a new umbrella?
Comment on the following sentences using may/might or can’t:
1. Perhaps you’ll find her there. 2. Perhaps she sold her car. 3. I think she knows him. 4. I don’t believe they found out the truth. 5. I am sure the teacher has corrected our papers. 6. Perhaps your neighbour was not at home. 7. Maybe Jack is ill. 8. Perhaps the hunter shot that wolf. 9. Maybe Jack knows the poem by heart. 10. I am sure that this girl doesn’t live in this house.
Comment on the following sentences using might + Present/Perfect Infinitive to express reproach.
1. She doesn’t get up early. 2. You didn’t learn the lesson. 3. The boy didn’t greet the old woman. 4. Mary doesn’t work hard. 5. You were not attentive. 6. You don’t hurry. 7. Father doesn’t give up smoking. 8. You didn’t bring me my coat. 9. The sick man didn’t take that medicine. 10. My sister doesn’t lock the door.
Fill in the blanks with must or have to. Sometimes it is possible to use either:
1. The pupils in our primary school _____ wear uniforms. 2. If you want to get a good mark, you _______ work hard. 3. He couldn’t come here yesterday because he _______ repair his bicycle. 4. In Romania traffic _______ keep to the right while in England it _________ keep to the left. 5. I am sure Tim will be punctual because he _____ to catch the early train. 6. This girl _______ earn her living since she was fifteen. 7. If you didn’t want to write your homework yesterday, you _______ write it today. 8. I don’t think we can play tennis tomorrow. We ________ go shopping. 9. I know that he doesn’t like going to school, but he __________. 10. As the manager was ill, we _________ postpone our meeting.
Fill in the blanks with mustn’t or don’t/doesn’t have to:
1. I tell you this secret but you _________ tell anybody about it. 2. We still have plenty of time so we _______ hurry. 3. You ___________ cross the street till the traffic light is green. 4. I think your leg is broken. You _______ move it. 5. We have enough bread, so you _______ go to buy any. 6. I may get up later on because I __________ go to school today. 7. Granny is sleeping, so we ________ make any noise. 8. It isn’t raining any longer, so you __________ take your umbrella. 9. Tom, you ___________ be late for school again! 10. The weather is fine today, so we _________ put on our warm clothes. 11. You _________ stop your car on the zebra crossing. 12. “Are you going to read that letter?” “No, I ___________ It’s not mine.” 13. We ___________ get up so early. The taxi will come at 8 o’clock. 14. She ___________ enter this building without permission. 15. You __________ go to the theatre if you don’t want to.
Fill in the blanks with mustn’t or needn’t according to the meaning:
1. People _________ walk on the grass. 2. We __________ take our umbrellas; the rain has stopped. 3. If he hasn’t finished the book yet, he __________ return it this week. 4. We _________ talk in a library. 5. She ____________ get up so early. It doesn’t take her longer than ten minutes to get to the station. 6. The president of a country ____________, openly at least, take sides in politics. 7. Children ___________ run in the street. 8. Think it over. You __________ decide right now. 9. You _________ help me with this exercise. I can do it myself. 10. We ___________ feed animals in a zoo.
Fill in the blanks with didn’t need to/needn’t have + Past Participle according to the meaning:
1. You _____________ (to tell) her that; you see she is crying now. 2. I ___________ (to knock) on the door because it was already open. 3. She __________ (to take) a taxi because she still had a lot of time to get there. 4. We ___________ (to stop) here; the policeman has seen us. 5. I ____________ (to wait) long because they came back home very quickly. 6. You ___________ (to pay) him so much money; it couldn’t be more than five dollars. 7. We __________ (to water) the flowers because it had rained an hour before. 8. She ______________ (to stay) up so late; now she is very tired. 9. You ________________ (to mention) anything about the child. Now she understands that we have discussed about him. 10. I ____________ (to show) my identity card because he had recognized me.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Work on the model:
E.g. We go to school six days a week. (five days) = > I wish we went to school five days a week.
He bought an old car. (new) = > I wish he had bought a new car.
1. You know how to speak Italian. (Spanish, too) 2. He painted the walls blue. (white) 3. My application for that job was rejected. (accepted) 4. She seldom goes to the theatre. (more often) 5. My father drinks very much coffee. (less) 6. It was an expensive camera. (cheap) 7. Tom came to the party. (his wife, too). 8. Alice is present. (her friend, too) 9. I arrived at work late this morning. (in time) 10. We have a small house. (big).
Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Aş dori să pot să o ajut pe sora ta. 2. Aş dori să ştiu unde locuieşte. 3. Aş dori să fiu milionar. 4. Aş dori să nu se mai repete acest lucru. 5. Aş fi dorit să fiu anunţat de acest lucru în prealabil. 6. Profesorul ar fi dorit ca noi să nu fi făcut atăt de multe greşeli în lucrare. 7. Mary ar dori să fie la mare acum. 8. Aş dori să fi avut bani să cumpăr tabloul. 9. Aş fi dorit ca ei să nu mă vadă acolo. 10. Aş fi dorit să am asemenea prilejuri cînd eram mai tînăr. 11. Se comportă ca şi cum ar fi stăpînul casei. 12. Mary arăta ca şi cum ar fi bolnavă. 13. Te plimbi ca şi cum nu ai avea ore astăzi. 14. Îmi pui aceste întrebări ca şi cum m-ai vedea pentru prima dată. 15. Miroase în casă ca şi cum am fi într-o farmacie. 16. Te uiţi la mine ca şi cum n-ai şti despre cine vorbim. 17. Mă simt ca şi cum toată lumea s-ar uita la mine. 18. Femeia merse mai departe ca şi cum nu l-ar fi observat pe cel care o urmărea. 19. Andrew păşeşte ca şi cum l-ar durea piciorul. 20. Pamela vorbeşte franţuzeşte ca şi cum ar fi fost crescută în Franţa.
Use Past or Perfect Subjunctive after even if/ even though according to the meaning:
1. I wouldn’t to that even if she (to give) me a lot of money. 2. Even though they (to lend) him their new dictionary, he couldn’t have translated such a difficult text. 3. Even if someone (to be) to leave me 10,000 pounds I would not be able to fulfil my lifelong ambition. 4. He wouldn’t have acted differently even if he (to know) the real situation. 5. Angela wouldn’t marry this man even though he (to be) rich. 6. Even if Doris (to come) here, she couldn’t help us. 7. I wouldn’t have told her the truth even though she (to ask) me to do that. 8. Even if he (to get up) earlier he wouldn’t have gone on the trip because of such bad weather. 9. Even though you (not to tell) me anything I would realize that there something wrong with you. 10. I would havevbought tickets even if I (to have) to stand in the queuevfor hours.
Open the brackets using the correct form of the Subjunctive.
1. He didn’t switch on the light lest his wife _____________ (wake) up. 2. Do you consider it right that these people ______________ (be treated) like that? 3. All good luck __________ (attend) you! 4. She left orders that it _____________ (changed) at once. 5. David works hard so that he __________ (pass) this difficult exam. 6. She is shocked that such a thing _____________ (happen) in her house. 7. However much money you ___________ (have), don’t spend it in one day. 8. You insisted that she _________ (be) present, too. 9. She suggests that our work ____________ (be finished) at once. 10. I propose she __________ (be asked) to resign. 11. It is quite wrong that people ____________ (forced) to say what they don’t want to. 12. He hurried so that he ____________ catch the train. 13. Give him my new address so that he ____________ (answer) my letter. 14. Whatever she ____________ (say) about me, don’t believe her! 15. Whoever he ___________ be, don’t open the door! 16. ___________ all your dreams come true. 17. You urge that she ____________ (start) learning English. 18. I wish he __________ (make) so many mistakes. 19. She insists that everybody ___________ (bring) the dictionaries to school. 20. They look as if they _________ ill.
21. It is important that she __________ (arrive) there before noon. 22. It is high time they __________ (tell) us the truth. 23. I gave orders that the prisoner _____________ (set) free at once. 24. I wish she _________ (speak) Italian more fluently. 25. No matter how difficult a problem __________ (be), you should try to solve it. 26. It is scandalous that they __________ (be treated) like that. 27. Should the weather __________ (be) fine tomorrow, we will all go fishing. 28. It is shocking that some people __________ (live) in such houses. 29. We spoke in a whisper lest mother ___________ (hear) us. 30. They demanded that you ___________ (be) on time. 31. I demand that she ____________ (tell) the truth. 32. It is quite wrong that pupils ___________ be obliged to wear uniforms. 33. They hurried lest they __________ (be caught) by the rain. 34. However important this matter ____________ be, we can’t discuss it now. 35. Though she _____________ (be) at home, she will not answer the phone. 36. God ___________(bless) you! 37. Devil _____________ (take) you! 38. Long _________ (live) peace all over the world! 39. Heaven ___________ (help) them!
CONDITIONAL
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses: type I
1. If I see him I (give) him a lift. 2. The table will collapse if you (stand) on it. 3. If he (eat) all that he will be ill. 4. If I find your passport I (telephone) you at once. 5. The police (arrest) him if they catch him. 6. If he (read) in bad light he will ruin his eyes. 7. Someone (steal) your car if you leave it unlocked. 8. What will happen if my parachute (not open)? 9. If he (wash) my car I’ll give him $10. 11. If she (need) a radio she can borrow mine. 12. If you (not go) away I’ll send for the police. 13. I’ll be very angry if he (make) any more mistakes. 14. If he (be) late we’ll go without him. 15. She will be absolutely furious if she (hear) about this. 16. If you put on the kettle I (make) the tea. 17. If you give my dog a bone he (bury) it at once. 18. If we leave the car here it (not be) in anybody’s way. 19. He’ll be late for the train if he (not start) at once. 20. If you come late they (not let) you in. 21. If he (go) on telling lies nobody will believe a word he says. 22. Unless he (sell) more he won’t get much commission. 23. If I lend you $10 when you (repay) me? 24. We’ll have to move upstairs if the river (rise) any higher. 25. If he (work) hard today can he have a holiday tomorrow? 26. Ice (turn) to water if you heat it. 27. If the house (burn) down we can claim compensation. 28. If you (not like) this one I’ll bring you another. 29. Unless you are more careful you (have) an accident. 30. Tell him to ring me up if you (see) him. 31. If I tell you a secret, you (promise) not to tell it to anyone else? 32. If you (not believe) what I say, ask your mother. 33. If he (like) the house will he buy it? 34. If you will kindly sit down I (make) enquiries for you. 35. Unless I have a quiet room I (not be able) to do any work. 36. She won’t open the door unless she (know) who it is. 37. Should you require anything else please (ring) the bell for the attendant.
Conditional sentences: type 2
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If I had a typewriter I (type) it myself. 2. If I (know) his address I’d give it to you. 3. He (look) a lot better if he shaved more often. 4. If you (play) for lower stakes you wouldn’t lose so much. 5. I shouldn’t drink that wine if I (be) you. 6. More tourists would come to this country if it (have) a better climate. 7. If I were sent to prison you (visit) me? 8. If someone (give) you a helicopter what would you do with it? 9. I (buy) shares it that company if I had some money. 10. If he (clean) his windscreen he’d be able to see where he was going. 11. If you drove your car into the river you (be able) to get out? 12. If you (not belong) to a union you couldn’t get a job. 13. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I’d give up my job. 14. What you (do) if you found a burglar in your house? 15. I could tell you what this means if I (know) Greek. 16. If everybody (give) $1 we would have enough. 17. He might get fat if he (stop) smoking. 18. If he knew that it was dangerous he (not come). 19. If you (see) someone drowning what would you do? 20. I (be) ruined if I bought her everything she asked for. 21. If you slept under a mosquito net you (not be) bitten so often. 22. I could get a job easily if I (have) a degree. 23. If she (do) her hair differently she might look quite nice. 24. If we had more rain our crops (grow) faster. 25. The whole machine would fall to pieces if you (remove) that screw. 26. I (keep) a horse if I could afford it. 27. I’d go and see him more often if he (live) on a bus route. 28. If they (ban) the sale of alcohol at football matches there might be less violence. 29. I (offer) to help if I thought I’d be any use. 30. What would you do if the lift (gets) stuck between two floors? 31. If you (paint) the walls white the room would be much brighter. 32. If you (change) your job would it affect your pension? 33. If you knew you had only six weeks to live how you (spend) those six weeks? 34. You wouldn’t have so much trouble with your car if you (have) it serviced regularly. 35. I’d climb over the wall if there (not be) so much broken glass on top of it.
Conditional sentences: type 3
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If I had known you were in hospital I (visit) you. 2. The ground was very soft. But for that, my horse (win). 3. If you (arrive) ten minutes earlier you would have got a seat. 4. You would have seen my garden at its best if you (be) here last week. 5. But for his quickness I (be) killed. 6. I shouldn’t have believed it if I (not see) it with my own eyes. 7. If he had slipped he (fall) 500 meters. 8. If he had asked you, you (accept)? 9. If I (had) a map I would have been all right. 10. If I (know) that you were coming I’d have baked a cake. 11. I (offer) to help him if I had realized that he was ill. 12. If you had left that wasp alone it (not sting) you. 13. If I (realize) what a bad driver you were I wouldn’t have come with you. 14. If I had realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop). 15. But for the fog we (reach) our destination ages ago. 16. If you had told me that he never paid his debts I (not lend) him the money. 17. If you (not sneeze) he wouldn’t have known that we were there. 18. If you (put) some mustard in the sandwiches they would have tasted better. 19. The hens (not get) into the house if you had shut the door. 20. If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim across it. 21. If you (speak) more slowly he might have understood you. 22. If he had known the whole story he (not be) so angry. 23. I shouldn’t have eaten it if I (know) that there was ginger in it. 24. If I (try) again I think that I would have succeeded. 25. You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions. 26. If you hadn’t been in such a hurry you (not put) sugar into the sauce instead of salt. 27. If I (be) ready when he called he would have taken me with him. 28. She had a headache; otherwise she (come) with us. 29. If she had listened to my directions she (not turn) down the wrong street. 30. If you (look) at the engine for a moment you would have seen what was missing. 31. Rome (be captured) by her enemies if the geese hadn’t cackled. 32. He would have been arrested if he (try) to leave the country. 33. I (take) a taxi if I had realized that it was such a long way. 34. You (save) me a lot of trouble if you had told me where you were going. 35. They would have forced their way into the house if I (not call) for help. 36. If he had put out his pipe before putting it in his pocket he (not burn) a hole in his coat.
Conditional sentences: all types
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If you (find) a skeleton in the cellar don’t mention it to anyone. 2. If you pass your examination we (have) a celebration. 3. What (happen) if I press this button? 4. I should have voted for her if I (have) a vote then. 5. If you go to Paris where you (stay). 6. If someone offered to buy you one of those rings, which you (choose)? 7. The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick. 8. If the milkman (come) tell him to leave two pints. 9. Someone (sit) on your glasses if you leave them there. 10. You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so much. 11. What I (do) if I hear the burglar alarm? 12. If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn’t have answered the wrong question. 13. I could repair the roof myself if I (have) a long ladder. 14. Unless they turn that radio off I (go) mad. 15. If you were made redundant what you (do)? 16. We’ll have a long way to walk if we (run) out of petrol here. 17. If you shake that bottle of port it (not be) fit to drink. 18. I’ll probably get lost unless he (come) with me. 19. You (not have) so many accidents if you drove more slowly. 20. If you (wear) a false beard nobody would have recognized you. 21. If she (leave) the fish there the car will get it. 22. Unless they leave a lamp beside that hole in the road somebody (fall) into it. 23. You’ll get pneumonia if you (not change) your wet clothes. 24. If I had known that you couldn’t eat octopus I (not buy) it. 25. If they (hang) that picture lower people would be able to see it. 26. She (be able) to walk faster if her shoes hadn’t such high heels. 27. I (bring) you some beer if I had known that you were thirsty. 28. If you had touched that electric cable you (be) electrocuted. 29. If the story hadn’t been true the newspaper (not print) it. 30. I (not buy) things on the installment system if I were you. 31. Dial 999 if you (want) Police, Ambulance, or Fire Brigade. 32. You (not be) any use to me unless you learn to type. 33. If anyone attacked me, my dog (jump) at his throat. 34. If he were in he (answer) the phone. 35. The ship would have run aground if the pilot (make) one mistake. 36. I shouldn’t have taken your umbrella if I (know) that it was the only one you had.
Make conditional sentences about these situations (1-6).
Example: 1. If he hadn’t taken drugs, he wouldn’t have been banned.
1. Ben Johnson took drugs => he was banned from sport
2. athletes earn a lot of money => they train hard
3. someone will run 100 meters in 9.3 seconds => nobody will believe it
4. Gabriela Szabo is very fit => it’s easy for her to run long distances
5. an athlete will win four gold medals in athletics => they will be a record breaker
6. in 1980 the Olympic Games were organized in Moscow => the USA didn’t take part.
Write answers to the questions.
1. What would the situation be now:
a) if performance-enhancing drugs hadn’t been developed?
b) if penicillin hadn’t been discovered?
c) if the computer hadn’t been invented?
d) if the Second World War had never broken out?
2. What would or would not have happened in the past:
a) if football was a less popular sport?
b) if the Americas and Europe were one continent?
c) if people didn’t like traveling?
d) if the sun was closer to the Earth
Use the cues to write mixed conditional sentences.
Example: If John weren’t so tall, he wouldn’t have had to have the doors in his house changed.
1. John is seven foot tall => he had to have the doors in his house changed
⇨ he joined a basketball team at school
⇨ he had problems finding a date for a school disco
2. Jessica has been a world-class gymnast since she was 11
⇨ she suffers from spine problems
⇨ she is a famous person now
⇨ she is able to support her family financially.
Write about three things that you did or didn’t do, or that happened or didn’t happen to you in the past and what the present consequences are. Use mixed conditional sentences.
Example: If I had started to play tennis when I was ten, I could be o champion now.
Complete the conditional sentences using a suitable form of the verbs in brackets.
1. If Fleming ______________ (not leave) bacteria in a dish, he wouldn’t have discovered penicillin. 2. Have you seen your horoscope? I ___________ (not go) out this afternoon if I were you! 3. If you ____________ (not go out) in the rain, you wouldn’t have caught a cold. 4. Many athletes ________________ (not break) records if they hadn’t used drugs. 5. Unless we control `doping`, the original spirit of the Olympics ____________ (disappear). 6. If you laid out flat the grey matter of a human brain, it _______________ (cover) an office desk! 7. If you have a headache, why ______________ you _____________ (not take) an aspirin? 8. If farmers used the new types of plants, they ______________ (have) crops that can resist disease. 9. If plants were engineered in the right way, they ________ (have) the taste and consistency of meat – good news for vegetarians! 10. If we had not bred from the wolf, the astonishing range of dogs _______________ (not exist).
Write sentences about what life would be like now if these things had not been invented or discovered. Use mixed conditional sentences.
electric lightbulbs, a vaccine for cholera, printing, penicillin, the atomic bomb, computers, guns, the wheel, cloning, cars
Example: If electric light bulbs hadn’t been invented, we would still have to use candles.
Complete these sentences saying what things would have happened in the past if the world was different. Use mixed conditionals.
Example: If the Earth was covered by sea, humans would not have evolved.
1. If the Earth was covered by sea, ...
2. If humans had small brains, ...
3. If spaceships could travel at the speed of light, ...
4. If humans lived 200 years, ...
5. If there were intelligent robots, ...
NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
Fill in the blanks with the Short or Long Infinitives of the verbs in brackets:
1. I wanted ____ home earlier. (to go). 2. She made me ______ that incident again. (to think of). 3. Our friends are expected _____ this evening. (to arrive) 4. I’m sure they’ll be able ______ all the exercises. (to do) 5. Would you like ______ with us? (to come) 6. Could you _____ this problem to me? ( to explain) 7. They must _____ this poem by heart. (to learn) 8. She seems _____ the truth. (to know) 9. I told her _____ care of her new book. (to take) 10. When she was a pupil, she used ______ a uniform. (to wear) 11. Let me _____ you something interesting. (to tell) 12. My brother happened _____ at home at that moment. (to be) 13. How dare she _____ such nonsense? (to talk) 14. They persuaded her ____ her leaving. (to postpone) 15. I refused _____ this question. (to answer) 16. I will help him ____ his luggage. (to carry) 17. As it was rather late, I had _____ (to leave) 18. May I _____ to bed now? (to go) 19. I suggested to him _____ for some minutes (to wait) 20. It is better _____ sure than sorry. (to be)
Paraphrase the following sentences using the Nominative + the Infinitive according to the model:
It seems that she knows you.
She seems to know you.
1. We know that she speaks three foreign languages. 2. It so happened that they all were absent. 3. Everybody expected that the singer would sing his famous song. 4. It is believed that the thief stole a large sum of money. 5. It was said that you were fond of music. 6. We are certain that Tom managed to arrive there on time. 7. It appears that you are right. 8. It was proved that she was lying to us. 9. It turned out that his grandmother was the owner of that castle. 10. It is supposed that she knows many interesting things about that expedition.
Translate the following sentences containing the Accusative + the Infinitive into Romanian:
1. They wanted us to go there as soon as possible. 2. She imagined me to be ill. 3. They forbid you to call on us. 4. I expect him to arrive here in a week’s time. 5. I will let you know about this matter when I get there. 6. She convinced me to join them on the trip. 7. Her funny hat always made me laugh. 8. They enabled us to attend that famous man’s lecture. 9. I urged him to tell her the truth. 10. I’m sure you will manage to persuade him to stay here one week longer. 11. It is necessary for them to buy all these books. 12. Why did you oblige her to keep this secret for such a long time?
Answer the following questions by using the Infinitive to express purpose:
1. Why did Mary go to the post office? (post a letter) 2. Why did you go into the garden? (plant some trees) 3. Why do you learn the new words? (translate this poem) 4. Why did Jane go to the window? (shut it) 5. Why did the boy come to school so early? (write his homework) 6. Why will she take a taxi? (catch the train) 7. Why did the children hurry? (not to miss the bus) 8. Why do you talk in a whisper? (not to wake up the children) 9. Why does mother go to market? (buy some vegetables) 10. Why did father borrow this money? (buy a boat)
Use the verbs in brackets in the Gerund:
They admitted (to be) rude. 2. You suggest (to play) chess. 3. She avoided (to mention) his name. 4. They stopped (to talk) about that matter. 5. Jane risks (to lose) a large sum of money. 6. We delayed (to go) to the seaside. 7. Now we can remember (to see) them somewhere. 8. He regretted (to say) such a thing. 9. I postponed (to meet) them. 10. Would you mind (to ring) me up later? 11. They can’t help (to worry) about such events. 12. The two girls began (to sing).
Replace the Infinitive by the Gerund according to the model: It is nice to swim – Swimming is nice.
1. It is comfortable to sit by the fireside. 2. It is unpleasant to sleep on the door. 3. It is difficult to do such exercises. 4. It is illegal to drive without a license. 5. It is tiring to drive at night. 6. It is dangerous to climb those rocks. 7. It is exciting to travel by plane. 8. It is expensive to eat in restaurants nowadays. 9. It is useful to learn English. 10. It is enjoyable to eat fresh fruit.
Use the Infinitive or the Gerund of the verbs in brackets:
1. We don’t wish (to reveal) our plans to you yet. 2. Has she finished (to read) the article yet? 3. Would you mind (to open) that window? 4. Our friend plans (to spend) a few weeks abroad. 5. When Alice was little, she enjoyed (to watch) cartoons. 6. They demanded (to see) our report immediately. 7. We avoided (to mention) his name that evening. 8. She hopes (to visit) Paris soon. 9. The boy admitted (to know) the name of that man. 10. His aunt always tends (to exaggerate) things. 11. Did Albert forget (to tell) you the news? 12. You seem (to understand) me now. 13. He doesn’t advise (to go) there today. 14. They would appreciate (to receive) our reply this week. 15. The boys wanted (to explain) to us what had happened. 16. They didn’t expect (to meet) us there. 17. She denied (to live) in that house. 18. Did they offer (to help) you? 19. You should postpone (to visit) your friend. 20. We can’t stand (to hear) this man’s complaints again.
Use the verbs in brackets in the right continuous tense:
1. When it started to rain, we (to walk) in the park. 2. Our friends (to come) here tomorrow. 3. What your sister (to do) now? 4. This time tomorrow we (to have) a test. 5. My brother (to work) in the garden for more than two hours. 6. When mother came home, the children (to sleep). 7. This old man always (to complain) about everything. 8. When we got there, it (to snow) for several hours. 9. My brothers (to play) football since they came back from school. 10. If we were not so busy, we (to watch) TV now.
Work on the model:
The boy is very tired. He is sitting on the bench.
The boy sitting on the bench is very tired.
1. At the gate there was a man. He was talking to a little child. 2. The books were on the top shelf. They belonged to my sister. 3. I chose a large room. It overlooked the park. 4. We listened to the birds. They were singing in the trees. 5. Yesterday I saw a dog. It was running after a cat. 6. Do you see the photo? It is lying on the floor. 7. Suddenly they heard a noise. It was coming from the street. 8. They saw a girl. She was picking flowers. 9. At last we found the path. It led to the chalet. 10. My sister told me five words. They ended in the letter “t”.
Use the Accusative + Present Participle according to the model:
The girl is singing. I hear...
I hear her singing.
1. The cake was burning. I smelt... 2. We are dancing. Tom sees... 3. The children were crossing the street. Mother noticed... 4. The train was moving. We felt... 5. The tennis-player is serving. We watch... 6. A stranger was talking to the policeman. She observed... 7. Something was happening there. They sensed... 8. The baby is crying. I hear...
Use the Nominative + Present Participle according to the model:
I noticed a ship, which was approaching the shore.
A ship was noticed approaching the shore.
1. I heard that Mary was playing the piano. 2. They noticed a boy who was running in the street. 3. They see that the patient is bleeding. 4. We spotted a strange object, which was flying in the sky. 5. They see a man who is lying on the bed. 6. They hear a strange noise, which is coming from the garden. 7. They noticed a woman who was trying to steal some jewels. 8. Somebody saw the thief who was killing a policeman.
From each pair of sentences make one sentence according to the model:
I was walking in the park. I was listening to the birds.
I was walking in the park listening to the birds.
1. The boy was running. He was looking back. 2. The children were sleeping. They were dreaming of something nice. 3. I was singing. I was looking out of the window. 4. The soldiers were marching. They were singing. 5. You were knocking at the door. You were thinking about the sick woman. 6. We were talking. We were admiring the landscape. 7. Father was sitting in an armchair. He was reading the newspaper. 8. A man was standing in front of our gate. He was looking at his watch. 9. I was driving my car. I was whistling an old song. 10. We were translating the text. We were looking the new words up in a dictionary.
Join the sentences below according to the model:
I wrote my homework. I went to school.
Having written my homework, I went to school.
1. I opened the box. I took some jewels. 2. The boys had their breakfast. They went fishing. 3. The children said “good night”. They went to bed. 4. She locked the door. She left the house. 5. I chose a summer dress. I paid at the cashier’s desk. 6. They borrowed a large sum of money. They bought a big house. 7. We received the telegram. We went to the railway station. 8. I found her address. I wrote her a long letter. 9. You understood the joke. You started to laugh. 10. Mary finished her dress. She put it on.
Change the adverb clauses to modifying phrases. Work on the models:
Because Lucy was busy, she couldn’t go for a walk. - Being busy, Lucy couldn’t go for a walk.
Because he had learnt the lesson, he answered all the teacher’s questions. - Having learnt the lesson, he answered all the teacher’s questions.
1. Because Peter lives far from school, he must get up very early. 2. Because Albert had read that book, he could tell the story to his sister. 3. Because I am well again, I may leave the hospital today. 4. Because you can speak English fluently, you can work as a guide for foreign tourists. 5. Because your sister was tired, she went to bed. 6. Because mother didn’t finish cooking the dinner, she asked us to wait. 7. Because father repaired the engine of our car, we could continue our trip. 8. Because I know her very well, I expect her to apologize for what she did. 9. Because granny lost her glasses, she couldn’t watch TV. 10. Because we didn’t write our homework, we got a bad mark.
From each pair of sentences make one sentence according to the model:
The money is on the table. It has been found by my sister.
The money found by my sister is on the table.
1. The cakes are very good. They were made by my sister. 2. The compositions are very interesting. They were written by my classmates. 3. The toy-horse is very nice. It was bought by Matthew. 4. The portraits are very expensive. They were painted by John. 5. These exercises contained many mistakes. They were done by my cousin. 6. Nick showed me a car. I had been bought three days before. 7. We’ll apply a new method. It was invented by a friend of mine. 8. The solutions are very good. They are suggested by our teacher. 9. These books are boring. They were read by us. 10. The albums are very expensive. They were printed in our town.
Use the Accusative + Past Participle:
1. During that match, Fred got (his leg; to break). 2. They want (their car; to repair) as soon as possible. 3. This experiment made (she; to know) all over the world. 4. When he returned from the seaside, he found (his house; to destroy). 5. I wish (this painting; to restore). 6. The teacher wanted (our test; to complete) in ten minutes.
Use the Accusative + Past Participle after causative have and translate then the sentences into Romanian:
1. Can I have (this document; to photocopy), please? 2. My daughter must have (her eyes; to test) on Friday. 3. Can we have (our car; to repair) by 5 o’clock? 4. Henry will have (his hair; to cut) this afternoon. 5. We had (our room; to decorate) last week. 6. The Smiths will have (a new house; to build) soon. 7. Peter has just had (his new novel; to print). 8. Paul had (his car; to service) a few days ago. 9. We must have (our chimneys; to sweep) every spring. 10. I have had (my windows; to clean) today.
Turn into the Passive Voice:
1. Mother wakes me at 7 o’clock every morning. 2. Fred will meet her at the station. 3. Little Jane has broken a vase. 4. Jerry was carrying our suitcase. 5. I would translate this text if I knew all the words. 6. She went home after she typed all the letters. 7. The teacher is asking me a lot of questions. 8. I gave her some flowers. 9. I offered mother five white roses. 10. This girl makes very good cakes.
Fill in the blanks with the Past Participle of the verbs in brackets. Translate the sentences into Romanian:
1. Have you ever ________ (to see) such a strange thing before? 2. My friend said that she had ________ (to buy) tickets for that show. 3. By 7 o’clock we will have __________ (to finish) our homework. 4. This house
was ______ (to build) in 1980. 5. All the people __________ (to mention) had to leave the room. 6. America was _________ (to discover) in 1492. 7. I wished they had ___________ (to arrive) there before us. 8. But for the fog, we could have ____________ (to reach) the village in less than two hours. 9. __________ (to scare) by the dogs, the boys started to cry. 10. I explained to my sister that I would give her that book after I had ____________ (to read) it.
MODAL WORDS
Point out the modal words and define their meaning. Translate the sentences.
.
.
1. Manson's nature was extraordinarily intense. Probably he derived this from his mother... 2. You come quickly to a resolution, Mr. Racksole. But perhaps you have been considering this question for a long time? 3. Certainly it was astonishing that, she should be… preoccupied with her schemes for the welfare of Constance... 4. Unhappily a terrible storm broke out before the travellers had reached the place of their destination. 5. Evidently she treated this experienced and sad woman of fifty as a young girl. 6. Fortunately there were few people at the morning surgery. 7. Silly, silly Phillip! Of course, it would have been different if they had married; he would naturally have taken it [the money]. 8. He became conscious of something very near him; indeed, nearly above his head.
THE INTERJECTION
Point out all the interjections and say whether they are emotional or imperative.
1. "The Boers are a hard nut to crack, uncle James." "Hum!" muttered James. "Where do you get your information? Nobody tells." 2. "Oh! My eye!" he said looking very lowspirited, "I am sorry for that." 3. "Good Lord!" said Fleur. "Am I only twenty-one? I feel forty-eight." 4. "Good Heavens!" cried my mother, "you'll drive me mad!" 5. Heavens! How dull you are! 6. "Oh, Karen," he said, "it's good to have you around!" 7. Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window. 8. A man jumped on top of the barricade and, waving exuberantly, shouted: "Americans! Hurrah." 9. Hallo, Michael I'm rather late; been to the club and walked home. 10. Ah! You are both of you good-natured. (Sheridan) 11. "Hark!" cried Dodger at this moment, "I heard the tinkle," catching up the light, he crept softly upstairs. 12. "Who is that?" she cried. "Hush, hush!" said one of the women, stooping over her... 13. Well, I don't like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of taking. 14. Now, Maria, here is a character to your taste... 15. Here! I've had enough of this. I'm going.
THE PREPOSITION
Fill in the blanks with the prepositions at, in or on to express place:
I. Nobody was... home. 2. His flat was... the third floor. 3. She had less than two dollars … her pocket. 4. He lives ... 62 Berkeley Street. 5. Stratford lies ... the River Avon. 6. Mother is not... the kitchen, she must be ... the garden. 7. There are a lot of printing mistakes ... this page. 8. We could see a tall tree ... the middle of the island. 9. She will spend about ten days ... the seaside. 10. You will have to meet her ... the airport. 11. They found an interesting article ... that magazine. 12. A bird ... the hand is worth two... the bush. (proverb) 13. There were some very old books... the top shelf. 14. That afternoon there were a lot of people ... the stadium. 15. They walked ... beach for a long while. 16. There was a strange sound ... the back of the car. 17. Her brother was still ... hospital. 18. When we saw so many people... the platform waiting for the train, I understood that we had to stand … the queue for the tickets. 19. We stopped ... the bottom of the hill for a rest. 20. They helped their grandparents... the farm.
Complete each sentence using the most suitable prepositions. Sometimes more than one answer is possible: in; inside; into; off; on; onto; out of; outside
1. The cat jumped... the roof of the car. 2. There is a taxi rank just... the railway station. 3. I saw nobody... the room. 4. Tom fell ... the ladder when he was trying to pick up some apples. 5. Kerry came... the house, got... her car and drove away. 6. My sister usually goes to school... the bus. 7. Wait a little ...: the story is on the... pages of the newspaper. 8. The car ran... the wall. 9. Fish can't live... the water. 10. The ship is anchored a mile... the coast.
Fill in the blanks with the prepositions at, in or on to express time:
1. My brother was born ... 1984. 2. They saw a good film ... Friday. 3. Is she doing anything special... the week-end? 4. Let's meet again... the 1st. That's Sunday. 5. ... seven o'clock my sister was still sleeping. .6. The two children started to laugh ... the same time. 7. I did that exercise... ten minutes. 8. Some children don't see their parents very often ... ; usually... Christmas. 9. Ch. Dickens lived ... the 19th century. 10. She hears a lot of noises... night. 11. I always have a lot of guests... my birthday anniversary. 12. Lucy got married ... 22, which is a good age to get married. 13. Somebody rang me up ... midnight. 14. I reminded her to be present... 10 o'clock ... the morning. 15. Her cousin graduated from school ... 1980 ... the age of nineteen. 16. They always go to church ... Easter morning. 17. The plane will be taking off ... a few minutes. 18. My neighbour is a mechanic but he is out of work... the moment. 19. I wanted to talk to her, but she was in town ... that time. 20. Julie often goes to concerts ... Friday evenings.
Complete the sentences using the prepositions during, for or in. Sometimes more than one answer is possible:
1. We waited in the rain... almost half an hour. 2. People couldn't get cigarettes... the war. 3. I saw several plays... my stay in London. 4. Yesterday it rained... four hours. 5. Mike is going to leave the town... a few days. 6. Our manager will be in Boston... the next five days. 7. Jack broke his leg... the match. 8. They were in Paris... two weeks last summer. 9. You can walk from this place to the town centre... a quarter of an hour. 10. We are meeting ... a week's time.
Complete the sentences using the suitable preposition.
1. Beryl, sitting … the window, fanning her freshly washed hair, thought she had never seen such a guy. 2. If Alice had blacked her face … a piece of cork before she started, the picture would have been complete. 3. Alice was going … tea with Stubbs, who'd sent her an "invite" … the little boy. 4. She went to the shop to get something … her mosquitoes. 5. You might have been attacked … cannibals. 6. Mice did wish there'd been a bit … life … the road. 7. It made her feel so queer, having nobody …her. 8. She pulled … her gloves, hummed … herself, and said … the distant gum tree, "Shan't be long now." 9. Mrs. Stubbs's, shop was perched … a little hillock just off the road. 10. It had two big windows … eyes, a broad veranda … a hat, and the sign … the roof. 11. Even then it was the rarest thing to find the left that belonged … the right. 12. So many people had lost patience and gone … with one shoe that fitted and one that was a little too big. 13. The two windows, arranged … the form of precarious pyramids, were crammed so tight, piled so high, that it seemed only a conjuror could prevent them … toppling over. 14. … and he sighed and took her … his arms again. 15. With her broad smile and the long bacon knife … her hand she looked like a friendly brigand. 16. Tea was laid … the parlour table. 17. Alice sat down … the edge of a basket-chair while Mrs. Stubbs pumped the stove still higher. 18. Suddenly Mrs. Stubbs whipped the cushion … a chair and disclosed a large brown paper parcel. 19. … her right stood a Grecian pillar with a giant fern tree … either side of it. 20. "Yes," she said thoughtfully, but I don't care … the size. 21. Alice jumped away … the word like a cat. 22. It was bright pink where it began and then it changed … apricot, and that faded … the colour of a brown egg. 23. They glanced … one another like conspirators. 24. Isabel stood up … her excitement and moved her elbows like wings. 25. Little Rags put … the King of Diamonds. 26. She had hardly any cards left. But when she and Kezia both had one, Kezia waited … purpose. 27. The others made signs … Lottie and pointed. 28. Lottie turned very red; she looked bewildered and … last she said, "Heehaw! Kezia." 29. They were … the very thick of it when the bull stopped them, holding … his hand. 30. "Whatever did we shut the door…?" she said softly. 31. … they were playing, the day had faded; the gorgeous sunset had blazed and died. 32. And now the quick dark came racing … the sea. 33. They were frightened to look … the corners of the washhouse. 34. The blinds pulled down; the kitchen fire leapt in the tins … the mantelpiece. 35. But Jonathan only answered, "A little love, a little kindness" and he walked … his sister-in-law’s side. 36. Linda dropped into Beryl's hammock … the tree and Jonathan stretched himself … the grass … her. 37. The voices … children cried … the other gardens. 38. A fisherman's light cart shook … the sandy road, and from far away they heard a dog barking; it was muffled as though the dog had its head in a sack. 39. If you listened you could just hear the soft swish of the sea … full tide sweeping the pebbles. 40. Linda was so accustomed … Jonathan's way of talking that she paid no attention to it. 41. The" Hum" was so deep. It seemed to boom … … the ground. 42. Looking … him as he lay there, Linda thought again how attractive he was. 43. What was the matter with Jonathan? He was always full … new ideas, schemes, etc. 44. The new fire blazed in. 45. "It seems …me just as imbecile, just as infernal, to be in the office on Monday," said Jonathan. 46. To spend all the best years of one's sitting on a stool … nine … five. 47. "Tell me, what is the difference … my life and that of an ordinary prisoner?” 48. The only difference I can see is that I put myself … jail and nobody's ever going to let me…. 49. I dash … the walls, dash … the windows, do everything … God's earth, … fact, accept fly out again. 50. There's the window or the door or whatever it was I came in…. 51. …"it's not allowed, it's forbidden, and it’s … the insect law, to stop banging and flopping and crawling up the pane even for an instant. 52. What are you smiling…? 53. Why does one feel so different … night? 54. Lightly, stealthily you move … your room. 55. You take something off the dressing-table and put it down again … a sound. 56. You're not very fond … your room. You never think … it. You're … and…, the door opens and slams. 57. You sit down … the side … your bed, change your shoes and dash out again. 58. He leapt … the flower-bed and seized her … his arms. 59. "Forgive me, darling, forgive me," stammered Stanley, and he put his hand … her chin and lifted her face … him. 60. But now she was …another difficulty.
THE CONJUNCTION
Point out all the coordinating conjunctions and define the group each belongs to.
1. The stranger had not gone far, as he went after him to ask the name. 2. Be quick, or it may be too late. 3. … real accuracy and purity she neither possessed, nor any number of years would acquire. 4. Mrs. Septimus Small let fall no word, neither did she question June about him. 5. The river was not high, so there was not more than a two or three mile current. 6. It seemed to him that he could contrive to secure for her the full benefit of both his life insurance and his fire insurance... 7. Karl is solid and extremely certain of himself, while Joseph on the other hand, though no less certain of himself, is a good deal less solid. 8. He could see no one, and he began to believe that either his instinct had deceived him, or else that the shadowing was over. 9. But for a long time we did not see any lights, nor did we see the share, but rowed steadily in the dark riding with the waves.
THE PARTICLE
Point out the particles and define the group each belongs to.
1. It is just because I want to save my soul that I am marrying for money. 2. Rosa feared this power, but she enjoyed it too. 3. Oh, doctor, do you think there is any chance? Can she possibly survive this last terrible complication? 4. We merely want to see the girl and take her away. 5. I shall also try to be there at ten. 6. Don’t come any nearer. You’re at just the right distance. 7. He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. 8. Just then the telephone rang. 9. He needed the peculiar sympathy that a woman alone can give. 10. She ought to have written at once and told him exactly what had happened. 11. I think he’s been a simply perfect father, so long as I can remember. 12. They did not even look at him.
SYNTAX
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
KINDS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
1. Define the kinds of sentences according to the purpose of the utterance.
A. Presently, looking along the road, she [Kezia] saw two little dots. Now she could see that they were, the Kelveys... “Hello,” she said to the passing Kelveys. “You can come and see our doll’s house if you want to” . . .But at that Lil turned red and shook her head quickly. “Why not?” asked Kezia. Lil gasped, then she said, “Your ma told our ma you wasn’t to speak to us.”— “Oh, well,” said Kezia. She didn’t know what to reply. “It doesn’t matter… Come on. Nobody’s looking. ... Don’t you want to?” asked Kezia... Kezia led the way. Like two little stray cats they followed across the courtyard to where the doll’s house stood “I’ll open it for you,” said Kezia kindly. She undid the hook and they looked inside. “There’s the drawing-room and the dining-room and that’s the —Kezia!” Oh, what a start they gave! It was Aunt Beryl’s voice. “Run away, children, run away at once.” (Mansfield).
B. Laura was terribly nervous. Tossing the velvet ribbon over her shoulder, she said to a woman standing by “Is this Mrs. Scott’s house?” and the woman smiling queerly, said “It is my lass”. “Oh, to be away from this!” She actually said “Help me God!” as she walked up the tiny path and knocked. To be away from these staring eyes, or to be covered in anything, one of those women’s shawls even! I’ll just have the basket and go, she decided. I shan't even wait for it to be emptied. Then the door opened. A little woman in black showed in the gloom. Laura said, "Are you Mrs. Scott?" But to her horror the woman answered, “Walk in, please, miss," and she was shut in the passage. "No," said Laura, "I don't want to come in. I only want to leave this basket." The little woman in the gloomy passage seemed not to hear her. "Step this way, please, miss," she said in an oily voice, and Laura followed her.
2. Point out one-member and two-member sentences. Say a) if they are extended or unextended, b) if the two-member sentences are complete or incomplete.
A. 1. Ben closed his eyes to think clearly for a moment. 2. “Two cups of coffee, please,... young Flynn timidly ordered. “What else do you want?” — “Jam turnover”. (Coppard). 3. “Why did you leave her [baby] in that mill?” — “Out of the rain.” — “In her pram?” — “Naturally. She’s asleep.” ...The mystery was awful and complete. Abandoned perambulator! Total disappearance of a baby! Horror! Martyrdom! Death! (Bennett). 4. Scene I — A room in Harley Street furnished as the Superintendent’s Office in a Nursing Home. (Berkeley).
B. 1. He stared amazed at the calmness of her answer. 2. We must go to meet the bus. Wouldn't do to miss it. 3. Obedient little trees, fulfilling their duty. 4. Lucretius knew very little about was going on in the world. Lived like a mole in a burrow. Lived on his own fat like a bear in winter. 5. He wants to write a play for me. One act. One man. Decides to commit suicide. 6. A beautiful day, quite warm. 7. “What do you want?” “Bandages, stuff for wounded”. 8. “How did he look?” “Grey but otherwise much the same” “And the daughter?” “Pretty”. 9. And the silence and the beauty of this camp at night. The stars. The mystic shadow water. The wonder and glory of all this. 10. “I’ll see nobody for half an hour, Macey,” said the boss. “Understand. Nobody at all.” 11. “Mother, a man’s been killed.” “Not in the garden?” interrupted her mother. Garden at the manor house. A flight of grey stone steps leads up to the house. The garden, an old fashioned one, full of roses. Time of year, July. Basket, chairs, and a table covered with books, are set under a large yew tree.
C. Find in an English text 4 examples of a two-member sentence:
a) complete, b) incomplete, c) extended, d) unextended:
2 examples of a one-member sentence:
a) extended, b) unextended.
KINDS OF QUESTIONS
3. Define the type of question.
1. Lady Bracknell: Where did the charitable gentleman . . . find you?
2. Gwendolen: How long do you remain in town?
3. Jack: What on earth are you so amused at?
4. Algernon: Do you really keep a diary?
5. Gwendolen: I may call you Cecily, may I not? — Cecily: With pleasure! — Gwendolen: And you will always call me Gwendolen, won’t you?—Cecily: If you wish. — Gwendolen: Then that is quite settled, is it not? (Wilde).
6. “Won’t you sit down?” said Josephine. (Mansfield).
7. “There’s no point in my seeing your people, is there?” (Berkeley).
8. Is the poem “The Cloud” written by Shelley or by Byron?
4. Make up sentences of different types (declarative, imperative, exclamatory, all kinds of interrogative sentences) using the given words.
1. of, have, the, map, a, at, look, England.
2. be seen, England’s, the, may, cliffs, mainland, white, from.
3. sea, far, London, from, is, the?
4. close, aren’t, the, Wales, are, they, mountains, sea, to, in, the, quite.
5. weather, how, the, beautiful, is, calm, in, sea!
6. ancient, this, lose, of, post-card, don’t, picture, castle, an.
7. is, a, landscape, this, picturesque, what!
8. centuries, invaded, the, what, in, tribes, Britain, V—VI?
9. the, did, the or, Anglo-Saxons, win, the,’ of, battle, Hastings, Normans?
10. survives, the, in, Celt, language, of, some, Scotland, parts, and, Ireland.
5. Ask questions to which the parts of the sentences or the whole of the sentences given in bold type are the answers.
1. The first settlers in Britain belonged to the Celtic tribes. 2. The actual conquest of Britain by Rome did not take place before the 1st century of our era. (general, disjunctive). 3. We do not know the details of the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. (general, disjunctive). 4. Numerous patients come to Bath to keep up health. 5. For those who seek a boisterous holiday Devonshire provides everything that could be wished for: golf, bathing, excursions, and trips. 6. Windsor Castle has been the home of English kings for nine hundred years. 7. The Castle stands upon a hill commanding the River Thames. 8. It is impossible to live anywhere in Britain far from the sea. (general, disjunctive). 9. In the month of August numerous yachting regattas may be seen near the Isle of White. 10. We shall see the highest tide if we come to the shore in full moon. 11. There are numerous kinds of strange seaweeds in the sea. (general, disjunctive). 12. Man has fished from earliest times. (general, disjunctive). 13. Although rather close to London, Epping Forest is the home of such wild creatures as foxes and deer. 14. The journey from London to the sea-shore does not take more than an hour. (general, disjunctive). 15. Hastings has a high reputation in the world of music by reason of its annual Festival.
6. Change the following declarative sentences into disjunctive questions.
Model: He is not ill. He is not ill, is he?
1. She is a talented singer. 2. You’ll tell us about it. 3. He can swim. 4. They’ve come. 5. You saw him last night. 6. There is some time left. 7. It snowed hard yesterday. 8. You’ll have to write to him at once. 9. He must have a good rest. 10. She was greatly astonished. 11. He doesn’t speak French. 12. They haven’t come yet. 13. He didn’t ring you up yesterday. 14. They weren’t at home. 15. She wasn’t long. 16. They are not here. 17. She isn’t clever. 18. There isn’t much time left. 19. I’m not good at algebra. 20. We shan’t go to the concert. 21. She bought a new hat. 22. They live at the corner of our street. 23. We hadn’t been interested in it. 24. They didn’t listen in last night.25. This photo was taken long ago. 26. She couldn’t recollect your address.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE SUBJECT
7. Point out the subject. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences into Romanian.
1. Mary brought in the fruit on a tray ... (Mansfield). 2. “Thinking won’t help”. (Mansfield). 3. From five to six is my real working time. (Shaw). 4. Captain Shotover: You frequent picture palaces. Mangan: Perhaps I do. Who told you? (Shaw). 5. Nobody’s well in this world.” (Coppard). 6. The wind blew down from the headland ... (Du Maurier). 7. “Finding you has not made any difference, has it?” (D Maurier). 8. “The boat has been there, all these months. No one has moved anything.” (Du Maurier). 9. “...Someone must have been talking ... You can’t stop these people (Du Maurier). 10. Two is company, three is none. 11. The rhododendrons were upon us ... Already they looked a little over-blown, a little laded.(Du Maurier). 12. “One of the second-class passengers has a room in the house...” (Maugham). 13. Those are your clerk’s initials, aren’t they? (Berke ley). 14. Unfortunately the innocent are always involved in any conflict. (Greene). 15. One never knows another human being. (Greene). 16. All is well, said that sleeping lace ... But all the same you had to cry . .. (Mansfield). 17. The three reached the Museum Hotel after one o’clock. (Cronin). 19. The sick do not ask if the hand that smooths their pillow is pure.
8. State with what meaning the pronouns one, we, you, they are used in the function of the subject. Translate the sentences.
1. One must spare other people’s feelings.
2. You cannot do different kind of work at a time.
3. We often see other people’s faults without seeing our own.
4. They say the weather will change soon.
5. We rather say “It’s me”, not “It’s I”
6. One should be careful when swimming in an unknown river.
9. State the nature of it. Translate the sentences.
1. It was a rare tonic to see Con again ... (Cronin). 2. It was possible to see the hen-house from the window of her bedroom ... (Bates). 3. I looked at my watch. It had gone eleven. (Greene). 4. “You heard the news?” — “Yes”. — “It’s a terrible thing,” he said, “terrible”. (Greene). 5. It was dark in the hall. (Mansfield). 6. It was she who had stopped the car ... (Galsworthy). 7. “Mr. D’Arcy,” she said, “what is the name of that song you were singing?” — “It’s called The Lass of Aughrim,” said Mr. D’Arcy ... (Joyce). 8. It cast a gloom over the boat, there being no mustard. (Jerome). 9. The telephone rang. I went to answer. It was Joe Bjornson. (Scheurweghs). 10. How far is it from your house to the river? 11. “Who is there?” — “It’s only me and my friends.” (Scheurweghs). 12 ... it was the steppe that seemed unreal. (Lessing). 13. It was the dignity that checked my tongue. (Lessing). 14. “This was the Old Chief’s country,” he said. “It stretched from those mountains over there way back to the river (Lessing).
10. Insert it or there. Comment on their use. Translate the sentences.
1. In the evening of that day __________ rained heavily. I went to the post office, and as I stood on the steps, umbrellaless ... a little, hesitating voice seemed to come from under my elbow. I looked down___________ was the First of the Barons with the black bag and an umbrella. He was asking me to share the latter. Now, __________is something peculiarly intimate in sharing an umbrella.— is apt to put one on the same footing as brushing a man’s coat for him. When we arrived at the pension ____________was very nearly an open riot …___________ was very friendly of the Herr Oberlehrer to have sent me a bouquet that evening. 2. “____________ ‘s such a mistake”, sighed Airs. Spears. “To be weak with children when they are little “ “… ____________ is nothing like handing them over to their father”. “Then you don’t whip them yourself?’ “Never, I don’t think ___________‘s the mother’s place to whip the children, __________‘s the duty of the father”. 3. ___________had been a bad day at the office. He was hot, dusty, tired out. In the corner of the drawing room _________was a picture, and on the top shelf stood a brown bear with a painted tongue. __________ seemed in the shadow to be grinning at Dicky’s father… ___________ was nearly dark in the garden. (Mansfield). 4. “The weather seemed to break this afternoon. ___________‘s the last of the heat waves for this summer”. __________was hot in London”, I said. The stars raced across the sky. _________were threads of cloud too ... _________ were woods about me, ___________was no Happy Valley. _________were nettles in the garden ... 5. ____________ is the middle of July. _________ is hot. ___________ is 30 degrees above zero. _________ is no wind. ___________ are no waves on the sea. ___________ is so pleasant to bask in the sun. ____________ are many people on the beach. __________ is on such hot days that I like to bathe most of all. 6. Look! _________ is a nest over your window! I know ___________is a swallow’s nest. __________ came in spring and built a nest here. Now ________ are some little swallows in it. ___________ is interesting to watch them. _____________ is the swallow that I like most of all the birds. 7. ___________ is late. ____________is 12 o’clock at night. ____________ is very bad to go to bed so late. I can never go to bed in time: ____________is so much work to do.
THE PREDICATE
11. State the kind of the predicate.
1. “Are you a Devonshire girl?” (Galsworthy). 2. That night he slept like a top ... (Galsworthy). 3. The little boy was silent. (Galsworthy). 4. “1 can skin rabbits.” (Galsworthy). 5. “... I went on holding his cold hands.” (Du Maurier). 6. The mast began to shiver, began to crack. (Du Maurier). 7. “It seems so odd to us (Du Maurier). 8. “... I couldn’t help walking with my shoulders bent.” (Greene). 9. The two guards looked at me ... (Greene). 10. 1 had a drink of brandy. (Greene). 11. His father might be dead. 12. On the first of October he was able to tell her to refurnish the house. (Cronin). 13. You weren’t allowed to retreat. (Aldington). 14. The signal officer made a face. (Aldington). 15. We don’t have the same trouble.. 16. Gerald: I don’t understand you now. (Wilde).
B. Find in an English text sentences containing different kinds of the predicate.
12. Point out the simple and the compound predicate.
1. “We shall be very pleased.” (Galsworthy). 2. They would never have found her there. (Du Maurier). 3. Within ten minutes he had been awakened by his servant. (Aldington). 4. “I’ve gone lame.” (Galsworthy). 5. She was moaning and crying. (Maugharn). 6. The doctor was feeling wan and nervous. (Maugham). 7. “By this time to-morrow she’ll be gone.” (Maugham). 8. The gramophone which had been silent for so long was playing ... (Maugham). 9. “It wouldn’t have been very nice for the Davidsons to have to mix with all that rough lot in the smoking-room.” (Maugham). 10. My memory comes to the surface again ... at Malta, where I am being rushed by an Orient liner ... (Shaw). 11. “I’ve been trying to get in touch with you all afternoon” ... (Cronin). 12. Everything seemed new and clear ... 13. He had been polite enough to the Macphails during the journey. (Maugham). 14. The sick man had been brought ashore ... (Maugham
13. Point out the link-verb of the compound nominal predicate. Translate the sentences.
1. He looked pale and tired. ( Mauriec). 2. “He smokes one hundred and fifty pipes every day.” —“That sounds a lot”. (Greene). 3. “What is Diolaction?” I said. “It sounds like condensed milk.” (Greene). 4. He looked puzzled and suspicious. (Greene). 5. Please, keep quiet. 6. Arguments proved useless — the old man was impla cab ... (Cronin). 7. It was growing twilight. (Bates). 8. Davidson looked scared, and his yellow drawn face went paler. (Aldington). 9. That peaceful sky hung arched over a desperate death- struggle of the nations. 10. This excess of caution seemed positively lunatic to troops coming straight from the front line ... Aldington). 11. Her mind was really getting muddled. (O’Casey). 12 Her lips quivered as she sat silent. (O’Casey). 13. He felt very conscious now ... 14. With this effort from his neck he passed out again, and this time into the furious black pain that seemed to last too long, although he remained half aware of it. 15. The blanched skin was slowly turning pink.
14. Insert the appropriate link-verbs (to look, to feel to be, to go, to stand, to break, to get, to seem, to grow to become)
1. I ___________ very lonely myself sometimes. 2. He landed perfectly and while the hound ___________ baffled flung him self at his hind-quarters... 3. The he was frightened: she __________ so pale. 4. Her short, red-brown hair had — wildly loose. 5. Something horrible might happen ... and the money be snatched from her very lingers. Oh, she would _________ mad then! 6. He _________ very short. 7. Looking round the restaurant she _____________ sure that no other woman there ... had as much as thirty pounds in her handbag. 8. Returning home in the afternoon she __________ conscious of her own betraying radiance. 9. Repton shrugged his shoulders, but he _________ happier. 10. She ___________ limp with her suppressed fear. 11. I _________ ten”, replied the flustered boy.
15. Point out the predicative and state what it is expressed by.
1. “... Now the only thing to do is to admit the error.” 2. My hand was hot, damp. (Du Maurier). 3. He’s a sticky sort of chap. (Pu Maurier). 4. The air was full of thunder. (Pu Manner). 5. I hope Dominguez is well?” (Greene). 6. “1 was asleep at first, and then I didn’t want to be disturbed. But I am disturbed, so come in,” (Greene). 7. Phuong had probably only shown the letter as a kind of boast — it wasn’t a sign of mistrust. (Greene). 8. “She’s no child. She’s tougher than you’ll ever be”. (Greene). 9. “Don’t be an old stay-at-home (Cronin). 10. All morning he was in a mood of high satisfaction. 11. They were wider apart than before. (Cronin). 12. “That’s all,” he said. (Pu Manlier) 13. It was all gone; and he was forty-three. 14. He felt for a bunch of keys in his pocket. (Bates). 15. 1 felt physically sick. It was a long time since I had received a letter from my wife. I ... could feel her pain in every line. (Greene).
16. Comment on the use and the meaning of the given verb in the sentences of every group. Translate the sentences.
to turn 1. M Macphail bent down ... and turned the body over. 2. The metallic blonde at the next table turned to her companion with a smile of amusement. 3. She wants to turn over a new leaf. 4. Andrew turned giddy.
to give 1. ‘Why didn’t you give it [the telegram] to me?” 2. The girl gave a little gasp.
to cease 1. The dog has ceased barking. 2. The minis ceased.
will 1. We cannot work, we cannot think, unless our stomach wills so. 2. “She was so experienced in a boat”.— “Yes, Frith ... But accidents will happen 3. Will you pass me the bread, please? 4. “... The jury will believe that at the inquest too. Phillips will tell them so.”
shall 1. I shall be of age next year. 2. Shall I write? Shall he help you? 3. Do have a short rest! You shall fall ill if you go on working like that.
to fall 1. At last they the dogs fell on each other with terrible fury... 2. Dr. Macphail did not answer, and presently he fell asleep. 3. But soon he fell into a walk, then ran, and then walked again. 4. Ben fell back clumsily on to the two- inch coral edge of the water-line.
to keep 1. I hid the paper under the cushion of the chair ... But I could not keep the morning editions from him. 2. He kept very still, and when he breathed out he kept the valve well into the coral behind him so that the air bubbles ... did not frighten them [sharks] off. 3. The perpetual harassing fire had kept him on the alert day and night.
B) Find in an English text:
1) examples with the verb to be used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as an auxiliary verb, c) as a link-verb, d) with a modal meaning;
2) four examples with the verb to have used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as part of a phraseological unit, c) as an auxiliary verb, d) with a modal meaning;
3) four examples with the verb to do used a) as a notional verb, b) as an auxiliary verb, c) to emphasize the meaning of the notional verb; d) as a verb-substitute;
4) examples with the verbs to come, to turn, to get, to feel, to keep, to grow, to look, to sound. a) as notional verbs, b) as link-verbs.
17. Comment on the kind of the predicate as in the given model.
Model: Ben ... took a quick look to see that Davy was not ill ... and went to sleep.
“took a quick look” — a simple predicate expressed by a phraseological unit; “was ... ill” — a compound nominal predicate ex pressed by the link-verb “was” and its predicative, the adjective “ill”; “went to sleep” — a compound verbal predicate of aspect containing the finite verb “to go”, which expresses the beginning of the action, and an infinitive.
1. When he came on deck next morning they were close to land. (Maugham). 2. In fancy he ... saw himself and her stealing forth at night ... till London swallowed them up, and the dreams of love came true. (Galsworthy). 3. “Hello, Davison! You look hot. Have a cup of tea?” (Aldington). 4. “You’ve been a little brick, Chris, the whole way through our bad times.” (Cronin). 5. Father Brown made no answer. (Chesterton). 6. He had no impulse to explore the countryside. (Warner). 7. He was afraid of arriving home alone ... He began to loiter on purpose to be noticed ... (Greene). 8. He seemed scared about something. (Greene). 9. A table had been set up under a tree ... (Lawrence).
AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT
18. Use the appropriate form of the verb. Translate.
1. There (was, were) many people in the hall.
2. My school-mate and my new fellow-student (has, have) met at my place lately.
3. a) Our old teacher and friend (is, are) dangerously ill.
b) Our old teacher and our young friend (is, are) dangerously ill.
4. When (is, are) your grandson and your granddaughter coming to see you?
5. a) The family (was, were) sitting round the table.
b) The family (was, were) numerous.
6. The newly married couple (was, were) warmly congratulated by all their friends.
7. A number of people (was, were) standing on the river bank.
8. The number of books in my library (has, have) increased.
9. “The two Gentlemen of Verona” (is, are) a comedy by Shakespeare.
10. Two young men (was, were) smoking in the corridor.
11. The red and green plaid (is, are) on the sofa.
12. The grey and the black puppy (was, were) sleeping on the rug.
13. A lecture and a report on this subject (is, are) to be delivered on Friday.
14. The cattle (was, were) grazing in the field.
15. Twenty dollars (is, are) not much for this nice coat.
16. All the things (is, are) packed up.
17. Everything (is, are) packed up.
18. If one (works, work) hard, one (makes, make) progress.
19. Gymnastics (strengthens, strengthen) one’s health.
20. The wounded (was, were) transported to the hospital.
21. The works (consists of, consist of) different shops.
22. Another three metres (was, were) bought for the girl’s dress.
23. No news (is, are) good news.
19. Comment on the use of the predicate-verb in the singular or in the plural.
1.... His people in Oughterard were written to. (Joyce). 2. After all it was his own fifty pounds ... 3. Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland. (Joyce). 4. There stand three young men ... (Shaw). 5. The fleet drops behind ... (Shaw). 6. We found that the band had arrived, and were standing about in the hall rather pink in the face. ... The band were to be our guests for the night, and after we had welcomed them ..., the band were borne off to their quarters ... (Du Maurier). 7. Mr. Murdstone and I were soon off. (Dickens). 8. Before Brodie could speak he added: How are all the family?” (Cronin). 9. “The Mungo Clothing Company have taken the, shop next door to your husband (Cronin). 10: “Oh, you [the unemployed] weren’t to have been paid. The North East [Company] never pay their crowds.” (Mansfield).
THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE OBJECT
20. Comment on the kind of the object and say what it is expressed by.
1. You can leave your homework in the meantime. (Cronin). 2. She’s capable of deciding. (Greene). 3. Mr. Heng sent a polite verbal reply. (Greene). 4. She was leaning on the banisters, listening to something. (Joyce). 5. One must leave some goal for succeeding generations. (Berkeley). 6. And I shall go on lighting for the trust reposed in me by the dead. (Berkeley). 7. What would she think of him doing that, when everything ... depended on his not checking the foreman? (Galsworthy). 8. But the one revelation that always hurt her was his conception of his father as someone ... who knew wonderful things but didn’t like to talk. (Wilson)
21. Oral exercise on the position of the indirect object.
Place the direct object before the indirect object to make the latter more prominent. Use the preposition to or for.
Model: Give me the book. —Give the book to me.
1. Show the children this wonderful picture book. 2. Tell somebody else this funny story. 3. Send her people a telegram. 4. Write his patents a letter of congratulation. 5. Can’t you lend him a small sum of money? 6. Don’t forget to buy your grandmother a new pair of spectacles in a leather case. 7. Bring us your family photos. 8. Don’t give me back the money; it isn’t mine. 9. Pass him the butter. 9. You needn’t return him the book: it belongs to his sister. 11. Show her the snapshots, I’ve seen them already. 12. Buy him a bicycle, his sister has got one.
22. A. Point out the object; define the kind of the object.
I. Read it! Read it to everybody! She used to read to rue while I was working. 2. Write this word! Write a few words to them! Write to him, he will be so glad to hear from you. 3. Sing a song! She sang some old Irish songs to the grateful listeners. Won’t you sing to us?
B. Insert the preposition to where necessary.
1. Explain ____ me how to do it. 2. My sister related ____ me all that had happened. 3. 1 often lend my dictionary ____ my friend. 4. He can prove this ____ everybody any moment. 5. He did not suggest ____ them that they should do it. 8. Describe ____ us all the details of the accident. 7. The author dedicated ____ the memory of his parents all the poems collected in the book. 8. These poems are ascribed ____ the pen of a young and gifted poet. 9. He introduced ____ his aunt all his young friends. 10. Can you lend ____ me your raincoat, please? 11. Has the doctor prescribed ____ you any new medicine? 12. We sent ____ her a basket of beautiful flowers. 13. Don’t send the money ____ me, send it ____ your grandmother. 14. Give it ____ me.
23. A. Make up sentences with the verbs which may have two direct objects (to ask, to answer, to envy, to forgive, to strike, to excuse, to teach).
B. Complete the following sentences (add a cognate object, using it with the attribute given in brackets).
1. The young man died ... (of a hero)
2. The old man sighed ... (deep).
3. He has lived ... (long and interesting).
4. After the excursion we all slept ... (sound).
5. Listening to the funny story he laughed ... (hearty).
6. Looking at the baby the mother smiled ... (happy).
7. He struck his enemy ... (deadly).
8. The troops won ... (glorious).
24. A. Make up sentences using the following words.
1. you, his, he, to, owes, success.
2. these, show, us, post-cards, to.
3. to, write, people, a, his, letter.
4. boy, explain, difficult, to, sum, the, this.
5. dictionary, her, give, my.
6. secretary, the, your, to, application, hand in.
7. your, buy, this, for, teddy bear, girl, little, wonderful.
8. it, do not, him, about, tell.
9. children, the, read, to.
10. girl, parents, introduce, this, to, young, your, charming.
11. work, suggest, them, method, to, the, of, right.
12. valuable, whom, this, does, to, belong, thing?
B. Find in an English text
some sentences with a) a direct object, b) two direct objects, c) a direct and an indirect object, d) an indirect object (without a direct object).
25. Ask a question on the prepositional object and its attribute, if any, as in the model.
Model: I am greatly interested in this problem.
What are you interested in? What problem are you interested in?
1. A symphony usually consists of four parts.
2. This collection of stamps belongs to my friend.
3. My decision depends on the state of my health.
4. My parents objected to my buying a motorcycle.
5. The reporter referred to our professor’s works.
6. Everybody spoke of the talented pianist.
7. The newspapers commented upon the proceedings of the conference of physicists.
8. They agreed upon the terms of the contract.
9. The students listened with great interest to the lecture on the international situation.
10. We were waiting for the 5.30 train.
11. The dean sent for the monitor of our group.
12. I looked for my green bag everywhere.
26. Point out the complex object. State what components the complex object consists of. Translate the sentences.
1. Sun didn’t mind people not noticing him — much.. (Mansfield). 2. And then, as by a miracle, the pigmy chest, which his hands enclosed, gave a short convulsive heave ... it almost made him faint. (Cronin). 3. We’ve dreamed of him succeeding old Palmerston as the Head of the Government—brought to the highest position in the country by us. (Berkeley). 4. She heard him absolutely roaring. “And do you expect me to pay for this gimcrack excursion of yours?” 5. “Buried. You two girls had me buried” She heard his stick thumping. 6 He did not want anybody to know, 7. …You know that she took offence at the poor dear boy’s ever being born. (Dickens). 8. “I will not sit here and hear such comparisons made.” With that she stalked out, and made the door bang after her. (Dickens). 9. I shan’t even wait for it to be emptied. (Mansfield). 10. “I only say”, he resumed, ... “that I disapprove of your preferring such company as Mistress Peggotty”. (Dickens).
27. A. Insert a verb suitable to be followed by a complex object (to insist, to make, to keep, find, to wait, to hear, to want, to expect, to see, to let, to get).
1. Nothing will ________ me believe it was true. 2. I ________ him laughing loudly. 3. The father ________ his son to be an educated man. 4. I shall never be able to ______ my packing done by myself. 5. I am not going _______ you go home alone so late at night. 6. We _______ them cross the bridge. 7. We ______ him to come soon. 8. The public were ________ for the curtain to rise 9. He ________ them walking along a shady alley. 10. I didn’t intend to ______ you waiting. 11. They _______ on my writing another letter.
B. Complete the sentences giving the second element of the complex object.
1. 1 must have my hair … 2. Nobody expected you ... 3. We shall get your luggage... 4. He waited for us ... 5. You can’t rely on his … 6. She watched the swallows ... 7. I suppose it ... 8. She considered herself ... 9. We were surprised at your…
THE ATTRIBUTE
30. Point out the attribute and say what it is expressed by.
1. “Perhaps one day you will have a reason for writing about it”. (Greene). 2. Horn made him a sign to come on to the veranda. 3. “We used to have a very good horse and trap at home,” said Aunt Julia sadly “The never- to- be -forgotten Johnny” said Mary Jane, laughing (Joyce) 4. They were strangers; they couldn’t be expected to understand that father was the very last person for such a thing to happen to. (Mansfield). 5. On another occasion ... the same dear baby ... was the innocent occasion of Miss Murdstone’s going into a passion. (Dickens). 6. ... he realised suddenly ... that it wasn’t fear of being caught that worried Davy but fear of being left alone. 7. That night in the surgery there were three patients, two of whom paid him the three and six penny fee... He had, in his first day’s practice, earned the sum of ten and six, (Cronin). 8. She looked at me ... with the slightest possible content — a “fancy-not-recognising-that-at-the-first glance” expression. (Mansfield). 9. And Bertha smiled with that little air of proprietorship that she always assumed while her women friends were new and mysterious. (Mansfield). 10. I think I come across the same idea in a little French review quite unknown in England. 11. She was a well made woman of about fifty ... She had the look of a woman well-fed, well-taken-care-of ... (Cronin). 14. Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great English humorist tells tales out of an artist’s sheer love of story telling. (Delmer). 15. Bennett was the first to realize that the grey-skied region, known as the Potteries, contained excellent “copy” for a series of novels. (Delmer). 16. They must have a roof to cover them, a house to shelter them ... (Cronin).
31. Place the attributes in the proper order in relation to the noun they modify.
Model: a hut, wooden, small — a small wooden hut
1. A man — handsome, grey-haired; 2. a building — ancient, dilapidated; 3. a woman — sick, old; 4. an alley — shady, broad; 5. a girl — little, thin, with big eyes; 6. a plant — tropical, fragrant; 7. a cliff — lonely, about 20 feet high; 8. baby — two-year- old, charming, this; 9. cousins — his, both; 10. a leaf — faded, oak; 11. a plaid — checked, Scotch, woollen; 12. music — sweet, exquisite, but quite unfamiliar to the listeners; 13. the pianist — talented, admired by the public; 14. a report — made by our professor, interesting, on modern English writers; 15. photo — taken about 10 years ago, my schoolfellow’s; 16. a lady—German, middle- aged, stout; 17. cap— favourite, my, old; 18. spectacles—old, my, in an old leather case; 19. a doctor— very experienced, well- known; 20. a story — told by a friend of mine, interesting.
32. Ask questions on the attributes in bold type. (The interrogative words for use: what, which, whose, what kind of, what sort of, how much, how many).
1. He is a conscientious student. 2. Bus number 2 will take you as far as the Opera House. 3. This is a book on architecture. 4. Cold winds blow from the North. 5. This is my brother’s tennis racket. To play tennis we must have four balls. 6. He drinks very much milk. 7. Give me the book on the left. 8. He lives in that house at the corner of the street. 9. They live in a new house of modern construction. 10. There are ten students in our group. 11. The meeting will take place in room 32. 12. You mustn’t lift heavy things. 13. I like salt biscuits. 14. I’ll go by the 3.30 train. 15. My friend spent two years in the North. 16. He delivered an interesting lecture. 17. Your brother is a most amusing companion. 18. She had a tiny brown spaniel puppy in her arms. 19. An old orchard of apple-trees stretched down to a stream.
33. A. Point out the attribute. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences.
1. There was nothing to say. 2. She was the first to help me. 3. I have a lot of things to see to. 4. There is nothing more to be done. 5. I have no intention to follow them. 6. Scientists from different countries will be present at the conference shortly to open in our city. 7. I hope to attend all the lectures to be delivered on this subject. 8. There is not a second to be lost.
B. Find in an English text
sentences including an attribute expressed by 1) an adjective, 2) a pronoun, 3) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal), 4) a noun a) in the common case, b) in the genitive case, 5) a prepositional phrase, 6) an adverb, 7) Participle I or II or a participial phrase, 8) a prepositional gerundial phrase or a prepositional construction, 9) an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or an infinitive construction, 10) a quotation group.
34. A. Make up sentences with detached attributes using the given words.
Model: — dismal cave, dark and cold.
We found ourselves in a dismal cave, dark and cold.
1. — big man, broad-shouldered and heavy.
2. — nice young girl, very graceful and elegantly dressed.
3. — unknown lane, long and narrow.
4. — modern building, built of glass and concrete.
5. — nice room, light and clean.
6. — small kitchen, cosy and tidy.
B. Make up sentences, using the following words and phrases as detached attributes.
rather high-flown; terrified by the accident; sick and tired; greatly surprised, quite depressed; fresh and jolly usually so considerate (of) ...; engaged in his work.
35. A. Point out the close and the loose apposition.
1. Maidenhead, a river resort, is on one of the River Thames... 2. The town of Windsor is a typically English town. (“Britain”) 2. William Langland, the humanitarian poet of the 14th century, deeply felt the social evils he saw around him. 3. Side by side with Langland lived another great English reformer, John Wycliff, one of the intellectual forces of the 14th century. 3. The poet Pope was Shakespeare’s second editor. 4. Jerome K. Jerome set England laughing ... with a farcial but exceedingly well- written story “Three Men in a Boat”. 5. The well known personage Sam Weller was Mr. Pickwick’s witty, light-hearted, shrewd and faithful servant, a kind of Cockney Sancho Panza. 6. That is his father, Sir Robert, a perfectly honest old cavalier. (Chesterton).
THE ADVERBIAL MODIEIER
36. State the kind of the adverbial modifier. Say what the adverbial modifier is expressed by.
1. “I heard him knocking, so I ran upstairs to let him in.” (Greene).
2. All at once the sheep-dog leapt to its feet. (Bates).
3. Ben was too busy to hear him now ...
4. Gabriel tried to cover his agitation by taking part in the dance with great energy. (Joyce).
5. I’m here; I’m working, morning, noon and night. (Berkeley).
6. Sophie pulled out the dress without saying anything. (Huxley).
7. There was a road to Cairo which went west across the desert.
8. They went down the stairs side by side. (Maugham).
9. Sometimes it is a joy in the very heart of hell to tell the truth. (Chesterton).
10. I believe that I began to know that there was something about my aunt, notwithstanding her many eccentricities and odd humours, to be honoured and trusted in. (Dickens).
11. “Your hands are like snowdrops, Mary ... They are cool like snow itself.
12. She hung her head a little, conscious of her own deficiencies and the oddity of her up-bringing ... (Cronin).
13. Lord Darlington: ... Go—go out of this house, with head erect, with a smile upon your lips, with courage in your eyes. (Wilde). 14. Here Nessie burst into the room like a young foal ... (Cronin).
15. Then in a moment she looked up, as though seeing him for the first time. (Cronin).
16. “She sat down on the edge of the table, swinging her legs, watching me (Du Maurier).
17. She paused, her eyes never leaving my face.
18. Everybody coming in time, we shall begin the discussion at 3 o’clock.
37. Point out the adverbial modifiers and state their kinds:
1. A long, soft ripple of wind flowed over the corn...
2. Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue...
3. ...the gardeners were busily potting out spring flowers.
4. The lines of the mountains were sharply defined against the profound blue.
5. Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow.
6. I quite understand you.
7. I was stiff with long sitting, and bewildered with the noise and motion of the coach...
8. The rest of the conversation is not important enough to be here related.
9. In case of your absence I shall leave you a note.
10. Even Miriam laughed in spite of herself.
11. Before switching on the electric light he pulled down the blind and drew the heavy curtain across the window.
12. She could run like an Amazon.
13. The gale had freshened since noon... and now blew with the strength of a hurricane...
14. She told me we must part, and told me why ...
15. I was completely happy.
16. “You’ve been working too hard lately.”
17. He stood still a long while, surveying the hillside.
18. Martin talked for fifteen minutes with him...
19. By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavily.
20. The stars were very bright.
21. “I think it’s pretty easy, Nick.”
22. I entirely agree with you.
23. Notwithstanding the cold weather, Henry Bosman’s face glowed like the heater in his chambers...
24. They were walking eastward.
25. The door was not fastened within...
26. “We shall be friends in spite of separation...”
27. Outside it was getting dark.
28. Dessie stopped for a moment to ease her back.
29. He moved down the stream a few steps...
30. I flushed simply from being spoken to ...
31. Around them, in the alder clumps, the primroses grew in great profusion.
32. She strained her ears to catch the words.
33. Mrs. Pratt had driven to Winster to see her mother...
34. She walked briskly.
35. The sky had partly cleared, but was very gloomy ...
36. Mauki no longer weighs one hundred and ten pounds.
37. He therefore gave his horsemen orders to advance.
38. He was now a hundred yards from the water...
39. The unexpected offer of shelter was too unexpected to be resisted.
40. Once more he passed my table without stopping.
41. It was very interesting to me to see them together not only on account of their mutual affection, but because of the strong personal resemblance between them ...
42. Ben was too busy to hear him now...
43. She started the car, and, ... drove at full speed.
44. Being asked to sit down he laid his hat and stick on the table...
45. I thought I should sleep well being tired; but I didn’t.
46. He stood on the porch sunning himself.
47. When dressed, I sat a long time by the window.
48. I did as requested.
49. Nobody spoke unless spoken to...
50. He is extremely well read though very young.
51. If necessary, I shall come tomorrow.
52. Little bare-legged children ran about him, playing on the grass.
38. Insert the adverbial modifier in the appropriate place. (Give more than one variants if possible).
1. It will be raining hard (soon). 2. The climate has been damp (always, in these parts). 3. It rains in autumn (usually). 4. There is no deep river, except the Tamar (on the southern coast of England). 5. The tourist put all the equipment which may be necessary during the tour (into his bag). 6. The ascent of the mountain peak will begin (early in the morning). 7. Ring me up (before leaving the town). 8. One strengthens one’s health (by mountaineering). 9. I shall sleep much and take long walks (instead of taking medicine). 10. One must have a good rest (after training). 11. We sat down to table and had a hearty meal (on returning home). 12. He jumped at the offer (being invited to spend his vacation in a mountain-camp). 13. We shall go on an excursion (weather permitting). 14. We returned to the camp (the sun setting behind the mountains).
39. Insert the adverbial modifiers in their proper place.
To his orderly he was cold and ... indifferent (at first). ... the change came (then, gradually). He might have changed his man (easily). He looked direct at his orderly (now, very rarely). ... As the young soldier moved, the elder watched him (unthinking, about the apartment). And an undiscovered feeling had held between the two men (from that time). The orderly was afraid of really meeting his master (henceforward). So he stared past his master (always)... He had served the Captain, and knew his duty (for more than a year). This he performed (easily) ... This irritated the officer (more and more). I flew into a rage with the young soldier (sometimes), and bullied him. The words pierced to his intelligence (never). He had a scar on his left thumb. The officer had suffered from it (long). The Captain grew irritable (madly). He flung a heavy military glove into the young soldier’s face (once). The youth tried to keep him self intact (instinctively) ... The youth was frightened (deeply). (Lawrence)
40. Ask questions on the adverbial modifiers in bold type.
1. All the preparations happily completed, we left for the South. 2. I see them twice a week. 3. One must handle this apparatus with great care. 4. After a good rest I can go miles. 5. The tourists were tired having covered over 30 miles that day. 6. She opened the window to air the room. 7. We have been living here since 1930. 8. The sailor ran to the front of the boat. 9. Rumours of his doings reached his relations from time to time. 10. In the fable the ant spends the summer gathering its winter store. 11. He opened the door for me to pass.
41. Make up sentences of your own using the following word combinations as adverbial modifiers.
1) of time or frequency: from time immemorial, since then, when a boy, when questioned, on returning home, from time to time, from that day on, in a day or two, not until, it was done, on that unforgettable day, with the flush of dawn;
2) of place or direction: behind the house, in front of the house, in the distance, at a distance, across the street, at the corner of the street, at the top of the page, at the bottom of, downstairs;
3) of manner or attending circumstances: on purpose, by chance, without a glance, with his fists clenched, with tears streaming down her cheeks, in a whisper, full of indignation, side by side, as if to stop him, never to come back;
4) of degree or measure: rather (well, badly, etc.), greatly (surprised, astonished, disappointed, etc.), to perfection, particularly, deeply, fairly well, over head and ears;
5) of cause: quite worn out, because of one’s carelessness, not being able to, there being no time left, it being late;
6) of condition: weather permitting, but for (one’s help, advice, kindness, etc.), if possible (necessary, obligatory), if (unless) discovered (asked, required, etc.);
7) of comparison: as if asleep (in doubt, etc.), like (all elderly people, all his relatives; a child, etc.);
8) of concession: difficult as it was, in spite of (the difficulties, the nasty weather, etc.), although quite tired (much weaker, etc.), notwithstanding his success (promise, etc.);
9) of purpose: for you to (have it, see it, etc.), in order to soothe the baby (to make it clear, etc.), lest he should forget it.
DETACHED PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
42. Point out and define the detached parts of the sentence. Translate the sentences.
1. He was so earnest in his manner that, despite her apathy, Mary found herself thanking him ... (Cronin). 2. In spite of himself, he watched him, gave him sharp orders (Lawrence). 3. Then the orderly shut himself off ... and waited, with sullen, flushed face, for the end of the noise. (Lawrence). 4. Dandy and Winter showed, so far, no signs of the bankruptcy prophesied for them by Soames ... (Galsworthy). 5. Presently he came to a standstill, with his hands deep plunged into his pockets and his shoulders hunched. (Galsworthy). 6. Between Michael and his senior partner a gulf was fixed, not less deep than that between two epochs ... (Galsworthy). 7. There he was, in his shabby overcoat, with his pale narrow face, and his disproportionately large eyes, and his sloping shoulders. (Galsworthy). 8. “Jose!” she said, horrified, “however are we going to stop everything?” (Mansfield). 9 He, however, was a gentleman, with long, fine hands and cultivated movements. 10. Michael moved his nostrils ... — but he could catch no scent, except incense. (Galsworthy)
Find in an English text sentences with the following detached members:
a) a detached adverbial modifier. b) a detached attribute, c) a detached object.
43. Point out homogeneous parts, define them and state what they are expressed by.
1. She was wearing a black pleated skirt and a bright red blouse of very fine poplin. (Braine). 2. It was a low, pleasant laugh. (Braine). 3. “Vaults closing!” Samuel would say and yawn. (Bennett). 4. Was he unaware that his wife was the proudest and the most obstinate woman on earth ...? (Bennett). 5. She turns round and looks at her husband. (Wilde). 6. Algernon: Ah! that must be Aunt Augusta. Only relatives or creditors ever ring in that Wagnerian manner. (Wilde). 7. They could not have moved or spoken since he went. (Maugham). 8. He raised her to her feet and partly dragging her, partly carrying her, got her downstairs. (Maugham). 9. He has asked his questions querulously but sternly ... (Aldridge). 10. Regret for the past and the future is the same. 11. But again Ashurst smiled and shook his head. (Galsworthy). 12. She was walking on before him so lightly and so erect ...(Joyce). 13. Once he was caught in a knot of children running away from some thing or somebody .. (Greene). 14. Sophia got the kettle and washed it up. (Bennett). 15. There was starlight, but no moonlight. (Greene). 16. The third [girl] was perhaps seventeen, tall and fair- haired too. (Galsworthy). 17. In the silence Gabriel could hear the falling of the molten wax into the tray and the thumping of his own heart against his ribs. (Joyce). 18. Then, suddenly raising herself on tiptoe and resting her hands lightly on his shoulders, she kissed him. (Joyce). 19. He was both curious and eager to have more precise information of his friends of the previous evening. (Cronin). 20. Digging went on through Tuesday and Wednesday. (Warner). 21. I watched him read his letters, saw him frown at one, smile at another ... (Du Maurier).
44. Point out homogeneous parts and state how they are connected.
1. “Both he who chooses heads and he who chooses tails are equally at fault ...” (Greene). 2. Nobody ever saw Chirac or the old sail. (Bennett) 3. The room was plainly visible as commodious, comfortably, though not agreeably furnished. (Cronin). 4. She was sitting in a chair idly, neither reading nor sewing ... (Maugham). 5. She accused Robert of either taking the ornament or breaking it and concealing the breakage. (Du Maurier). 6. That night Ashurst hardly slept at all. He was thinking, tossing and turning. Next morning he got his cheque cashed, but avoided the shop of the dove-grey dress ..., and, instead, bought himself some necessaries. (Galsworthy). 7. But I was more afraid of the pain than of the partisans ... (Greene). S. A moment later she pulled back the bolt of the bedroom door and then turned the key and opened the door and stood on the landing outside (Bates).
Find in an English text some sentences containing homogeneous parts.
ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
45. Analyse the following sentences according to the form given.
Model: Clarice was waiting for me in my bedroom. It is a simple extended sentence.
“Clarice” is the subject expressed by a proper noun
“was waiting” is a simple predicate expressed by the verb “to wait’ in the Past continuous tense, singular.
“for me” is a prepositional object expressed by a personal pronoun, first person, singular, in the objective case, preceded by the pre position “for”.
“in my bedroom” is an adverbial modifier of place expressed by a prepositional phrase.
1. Mary shook off her mantle with a shrug of her shoulders. (Cronin). 2. Passengers getting out of the open doors were bowled along the platform. 3. Trasker had been watching her with an inexplicable flush on his face ... (Wilson). 4. Dinner at the Traskers had become by this time almost a family routine for the Gorins. (Wilson). 5. Several shutters were put up in the windows of the shop to indicate a death. (Bennett). 6. The customer sent up by Constance had occupied the surface of her life for ten minutes, trying on hats. (Bennett). 7. She saw him put a piece of folded white paper on the top edge of the screening box and flick it down to her. (Bennett). 8. This was a disagreeable way of putting the business. (Dickens). 9. The two women stood side by side looking at the slender, flowering tree. (Mansfield). 10. She had to talk because of her desire to laugh. (Mansfield). 11. One winter afternoon she had been buying something in a little antique shop in Curzon Street. (Mansfield). 12. I opened the knife, and cut a: length of twine, and came back into the room again. 13 This time he allowed me to touch him and pull hold of his collar. (Du Maurier). 14. Most of the western rivers flow down a steep slope near the sea and are short and rapid. (Wide World Reader). 15. The southern rivers also rise near the coast and have short and rapid courses. (Wide World Reader). 16. The valley of the Tweed is remarkable for its magnificent trees. 17. The ebb flows to and from the great shallow of the North Sea produces an alternating tidal race, running with a speed of from six to ten knots an hour. 18. The contrast between the south-east and the north-west of Brit ain depends on a fundamental distinction in rock structure. 19. The well known cyclone on the 28 of December in 1879 was a real storm, the wind amounting in some places to a severe gale. 20. From the Pennine Chain good building stone, marble, and lime are obtained in large quantities. 21. Birmingham, England’s “Second City”, has the reputation of being able to make anything from an ancient relic to the automobile. 22. Stratford is an irresistibly attractive country town.
THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OP THE SENTENCE
46. Point out the independent elements, define them and say what they are expressed by.
1. “Have one each, my dears,” said cook in her comfortable voice. (Mansfield).
2. That was, so to speak, another gift from Warley. (Braine).
3. “Hello, Eva”, I said. “Hello, Alice:..” (Braine).
4. “Well, Miss Spencer,” she greeted the former Baroness Zerlinski. (Bennett).
5. To do that lady justice, Miss Spencer bore the surprising ordeal very well. (Bennett).
6. But, on the whole, England has a gently sloping surface.
7. “Oh, father!” cried Nella, “what a lot of mustard you have taken!” (Bennett).
8. At length the reply from Mr. Murdstone came ... (Dickens).
47. Point out the parenthesis and state what it is expressed by.
1. He is my husband, and, of course, I do what he tells me. (Bennett).
2. As it was, Nella departed with surprising docility. (Bennett).
3. He looked at her in sullen amazement, but refused, none the less, to be diverted from the issue.
4. She glanced, sideways, at the old couple. Perhaps they would go soon. (Mansfield).
5. Gerald: They [women] are awfully interested, certainly, in things we don’t care much about.
6. Needless to say, the total was more and not less than a thousand francs. (Bennett).
7. “... But there’s no chance here, Mrs Bicket. Besides, he couldn’t make two ends meet on this job, he told me. (Galsworthy).
8. According to your theory, we’re in a mighty soulful era. (Galsworthy).
9. To tell you the truth, I don’t like to get up early.
48. A. Insert an appropriate word (word combination) as a parenthesis evidently, in fact, by the way, judging by ..., to cut a long story short, may be, besides, luckily, in my opinion, to tell the truth).
1. __________he is quite ill. 2. __________they got married. 3. __________ I don’t like it. 4.____________ N. is the best violinist I’ve ever heard. 5. __________I found out much later that I had been wrong. 6. Don’t worry, __________she will come soon. 7. I have much work to do for to-morrow, __________my mother is unwell, so I must leave at once. 8. ____________ the driver managed to avoid knocking down the old man. 9. You have ____________been working very hard, you look so tired. 10. ____________Henry, how old is your sister?
B. Make up or find sentences using the following words and word combinations as a parenthesis:
a) modal words (such as: perhaps, maybe, certainly, etc.);
b) adverbs (such as: besides, still, anyway, moreover, firstly, etc.);
c) prepositional phrases (such as: in truth, at least, etc.);
d) infinitive and participial phrases (such as: to be frank, to be quite plain, etc., generally speaking, judging by your words, etc.).
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
49. Point out sentences with a) syndetic and b) asyndetic coordination. Comment on the types of coordination and on the conjunctions used in a).
1. I would not listen to her, I thought her hard and cruel. (Du Manner). 2. She put her hands up to her cheeks, but her eyes seemed to look right into his. (Galsworthy). 3. He went up to his bedroom to get a book, and his heart began to beat violently, for she was in there making the bed. (Galsworthy). 4. The cuckoos and a thousand birds were singing; the little streams were very bright. (Galsworthy). 5. Spreading four square in the midst of the British Kingdom is the inland Irish Sea; while for six hundred miles off the north western shores is the border of the ocean. (Mackinder). 6. In Britain even the leeward slopes receive abundant moisture; yet the rain-shadows to eastward and north-eastward of the hills are distinctly indicated upon the map. (Mackinder).
50. Point out the coordinating conjunctions connecting a) the clauses of the compound sentences and b) those connecting the homogeneous members of the simple sentences.
1. Miss Sharp only folded her own hands with a very frigid smile and bow, and quite declined to accept the proffered honour. (Thackeray). 2. A seed-cake and a bottle of wine were produced in the drawing-room and these refreshments being partaken of, Miss Sedley was at liberty to depart. (Thackeray). 3. He must go, or they would overtake him. (Lawrence). 4. If you meant to be a guest, you or your courier gave your card to Miss Spencer. 5. Racksole tried to catch the waiter’s eye, but could not. (Bennett). 6. “She wanted to come and see you before, but she and Maxim have been so busy.” (Du Maurier). 7. Neither she nor I could pick up any information on the subject. (Dickens). 8. Mrs. Septimus Small let fall no word; neither did she question June about it. (Galsworthy).
51. Comment on the meaning of the coordinating conjunction and (addition, succession or simultaneity; causative-consecutive or adversative meaning).
1. Rebecca’s mother had had some education somewhere, and her daughter spoke French with purity and a Parisian accent. (Thackeray). 2. She had already taken leave of him once ...; and now she had nothing to say, nothing whatever. (Bennett). 3. On the instant she straightened up, and her eyes filled with a great pain. (Dreiser). 4. They were all tremendously great men, and the so-called experts were all tremendously sure they were right. (Berkeley). 5. A padding of unshod hoofs came up the lane, and three dim, dark shapes passed — ponies on an evening march. (Galsworthy). 6. The catastrophe came, and she was brought to the Mall as to her home. (Thackeray). 7. Susan was a princess and I was the equivalent of a swine-herd. 8. There was a pane missing in the kiosk and a cold wind blew in. 9. That poor boy asked me to help him to get a chance to propose — and I sent them out for a walk. (Berkeley). 10. Constance, in addition to the sciatica, had caught a sneezing cold, and the act of sneezing caused her the most acute pain. (Bennett). 11. He laughed, and so did she. (Dreiser). 12. Then the bazooka shell burst on the tower and I was on my face again. (Greene). 13. “... they’ve been married nearly ten years and they haven’t had any children.” (Braine)
52. Make up one compound sentence by joining two simple ones with the help of the conjunction.
Model: You don’t like to have a tooth pulled out. I don’t like to have a tooth pulled out. —You don’t like to have a tooth pulled out, and I don’t like it either.
1. You have not been to London. I have not been there.
2. She does not like jazz-band. My people do not like jazz-band.
3. I never take medicine. She does not take medicine.
4. She is not fond of such kind of poetry. I am not fond of it.
5. My aunt never goes to football matches. My grandmother never goes to football matches.
6. You never make spelling mistakes. My friend never makes spelling mistakes.
7. I do not go to-the South in July. My sister does not go to the South in July.
53. Join the following sentences into one using the conjunction so or neither. (Mind the order of words in the second clause of the compound sentence).
Model: I am going to hear this concert. My sister is going to hear it too.— I am going to hear this concert, so is my sister.
Bananas don’t grow in the North. Pine-apples don’t grow in the North either. — Bananas don’t grow in the North, neither do pine-apples.
1. He would have liked to be present at that lecture. I should have liked to be present at the lecture too. 2. I have never been to Scandinavian countries. My children have never been to Scandinavian countries either. 3. You are not responsible for this accident. Your husband is not responsible for it either. 4. But for the meeting I should have been at the concert yesterday. My fellow-students would have been there too. 5. I am greatly interested in this subject. My friend is also interested.
54. Using suitable coordinating conjunctions, convert the following simple sentences into compound ones.
1. It being stuffy in the room, I opened the window.
2. Thanks to the driver’s skill, the old man was not knocked down.
3. Our work being completed, we may have a good rest.
4. For all his experience in this branch of science, he is sometimes compelled to consult the professor.
5. In spite of the snowstorm in the mountains, the geologists managed to carry out their work.
6. She spoke to me in low voice to avoid disturbing the patient.
7. He blamed nobody except his younger brother.
8. Except the pianist himself all the people found the concert to be a success.
9. That day the sea was too stormy for people to bathe.
10. During the holidays I went to Moscow to see an old friend of mine.
11. It being a nice little place, the host and the hostess were rather proud of it.
12. But for the umbrella he would have come home drenched and would have caught cold.
55. Complete the following so that compound sentences should be formed.
1. Take the lid off the pan, or else (the soup, to boil over).
2. Some people like hot weather, whereas (others, can’t stand...).
3. Either you will buy the tickets, or (I, to ask ...).
4. You are inexperienced, hence (you, can’t judge ...).
5. She is small and thin, while (her children, to be ...).
6. Both the friends were fond of music, so (they, to talk...).
7. I asked them to stay some days more, still (they, to make up one’s mind ...).
8. The train started at 5 a. m., therefore (we, to get up ...).
9. He was quite a young boy, nevertheless (everybody, to respect ...).
10. Neither a telegram was sent, nor (a letter, to be written).
11. I met him somewhere, but ( not to remember ...).
13. She is a delicate child, while (her brother, to be ...).
14. He was not much afraid, yet (he, to ask ...).
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
SUBJECT, OBJECT AND PREDICATIVE CLAUSES
56. Point out subject clauses and the connectives they are introduced by.
1. Whatever he thought of her would not go beyond him. (Galsworthy). 2. ... “How that woman ever got into it [the world] with that name, is unaccountable to me.” (Dickens). 3. What you ask is impossible. (Wilde). 4. “What we want is rest,” said Harris. (Jerome). 5. One night my father’s big red land was trampled down by small sharp hooves, and it was discovered that the culprits were goats. 6. What awakened him was the engine coughing. (Aldridge), 7. Is it to be hinted to me that I want in affection for my precious treasure ... (Dickens). 8. “It’s very strange,” said Mr. Dick ..., “that I never can get that quite right (Dickens). 9. Which side wins does not concern us here. (Shaw). 10. It’s a good thing she went away with you. (Greene). 11. Whether I was her rival in sport or in studies seemed equally bad in her eyes.
A. Find in an English text some complex sentences containing a subject clause introduced by a) the conjunctions that, whether; b) the conjunctive pronouns who, which, what and by the conjunctive adverbs where, when, how, why.
57. Point out predicative clauses; state by what connectives they are introduced.
1. I had said the name ... It was as though I had taken a purge and rid myself of an intolerable pain. (Du Maurier). 2. To blow the bridge at a stated hour based on the time set for the attack is how it should be done. (Hemingway). 3. The provoking thing was that ... Bertha couldn’t make her out. (Mansfield). 4. This was not how the object itself would look: this was the image in a mirror, reversed. (Greene). 6. And this is what he remembered. (Gals worthy). 7. Dr. Macphail’s first thought was that something had happened to Miss Thompson. (Maugham). 8. “The trouble was ... he got mixed up.” (Greene). 9. “We are just as we were,” said Adrian, “friends.” (Galsworthy).
58. Define the kind of the subordinate clauses; isolate that which appears to be the principal clause.
1. What has happened to me is exactly what I willed to happen. 2. What annoyed me the most about him was that he stood four inches above me and was broader across the shoulders. (Braine). 3. What she simply couldn’t make out — what was miraculous was how she should have guessed Miss Fulton’s mood so exactly and so instantly. (Mansfield). 4. “What we’ve got to decide now, however, is whether we really do trust Kate or not.” (Mansfield). 5. What I mean is people don’t suddenly for no reason have violent headaches. (Du Maurier). 6. What I mean is that you can’t go cutting everybody. (Shaw).
59. State whether the object clauses are introduced asyndetically or syndetically; in the latter case pick out the connectives. Translate the sentences.
1. You must do whatever your conscience tells you to be right, Dr. Gumming. (Berkeley). 2. What Miss Fulton did, Bertha didn’t know. (Mansfield). 3. What is to guarantee that my orders are not changed? (Hemingway). 4. She found that I listened to what she said. 5. I do not blame the dog because I take it that it is his nature. (Jerome). 6. “I only want you to re - member what you have seen,” he said ... (Greene). 7. I couldn’t tell who the speakers were. (Greene). 8. One can allways tell from a woman’s bonnet whether she has got a memory or - not. (Wilde). 9. I hope I shall remember that. (Wilde). 10. I think there must have been thunder in the air (Wilde). 11. Nella inquired where the Baroness meant to take lunch. (Bennett). 12. I don’t see why a man should think he is pleasing a woman enormously when he says to her a whole heap of things that he doesn’t mean. (Wilde). 13. I see how it is. 14. I was horribly afraid lest some one might walk up Salisbury Lane ... (Bennett). 15. I wondered if the bishop’s wife saw the flush on my face ... (Du Maurier). 16. Andrew, I am exceedingly sorry I allowed you to call on us. (Shaw). 17. Dinny felt suddenly that she was on very thin ice. (Galsworthy). 18. I’m terribly glad I’ve met you at last.” (Galsworthy).
Find in an English text some complex sentences containing an object clause.
60. A. Join the following simple sentences into one complex sentence containing a subject, an object, or a predicative clause.
1. What kind of books are you fond of? I should like to know it. 2. He told us many things about his journey. We are greatly interested in it. 3. His children should be decent and educated people. He dreams about it. 4. What was going on in the street? I wondered at it. 5. Travelling by land is more interesting than travelling by sea. I don’t think so. 6. He will keep his word. You may rely on it.
B. Complete the following sentences supplying subject, object, or predicative clauses.
1. He has made up his mind ... 2. 1 didn’t hear ... 3. A little bit of pluck is… 4 The trainer’s instructions to the sportsman were… 5. It was of vital importance… 6. The trainer explained to them ... 7. I’ll do just… 8. His aim was ... 9. I take it ... 10. It is a pity ... 11. Do you understand...? 12. He felt ... 13. See to it… 14. ... I really cannot imagine.
ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
61. Define the kinds of attributive clauses; translate the sentences.
1. It was the hour of rest in the immense courtyard which lay open to the sky. (Greene). 2. The procession of cars was well ahead of us by the time we started. (Greene). 3. Then Harris, who was sitting next the window, drew aside the curtain and looked out upon the street. (J. K. Jerome). 4. There is no doubt that my wife was bitterly jealous. (Conan Doyle). 5. There are times when all of us are afraid of him. (Conan Doyle). 6 I have no distinct remembrance whether it pleased or frightened me. (Dickens). 7. I had a strong impression that my company was not wanted. (Greene). 8. We were expected to work all the time, which appears reasonable enough. 9. She was very much afraid of her husband, who treated her with a harshness for which I frequently reproached him. (Conan Doyle). 10. In the distance lay the park, where the trees were weighted with snow. (Joyce). 11. A similar revolver she concealed… in Miss Dunbar’s wardrobe after discharging one barrel, which she could easily do in the woods without attracting attention. (Conan Doyle).
62. Pick out the attributive clauses; point out the words the clauses refer to; say whether the clauses are introduced a) asyndetically, b) syndetically define the connectives.
1. Perhaps he was just killed by someone who wanted his money. (Greene). 2 Gabriel went away to a remote corner of the room where Freddy’s mother was sitting. (Joyce). 3. She has an opportunity which is offered to very few of us. (Maugham). 4. Ben ... was having trouble with the valve that supplied the right amount of air. (Aldridge). 5. That was the knife he had had no time to use. 6. Those were the days when there was something like singing to be heard in Dublin. (Joyce). 7. He wanted to explain all he had felt and thought. 8. She belonged to a world about which he knew nothing at all. (Greene). 9. They had agreed that during the first evening they would avoid asking questions about how and why Emil had left Vienna. (Warner). 10. The only person in the household with whom he seemed to feel at ease was Hannah. (Warner). 11. I felt the same walking down Piccadilly after the war as I did as a youngster back from India. (Galsworthy).
63. A. Insert: who, whose, whom, which, that.
1. When he reached Andrew, _________ he had seen from halfway down the street, he gave a theatrical start of recognition, (Cronin) 2. The most- markedly transverse river in Wales is the Wye, __________ general direction is south – eastward. (Mackinder). 3.This marriage __________ for obvious reasons must inevitably take place ... will not give me a name ___________ will be really, rightly mine to bear. (Wilde). 4.Cam bridge is one of the great architectural glories of England. Those ____________ claim that it is more beautiful than Oxford were educated locally. (“Britain”).
B. Translate:
1. He is not such a timid person as you think him to be. 2. In the picture gallery there -were such pictures as we had never seen before. 3. Your son is fond of such books as I liked in my childhood.
64. A. Omit the relative pronouns or adverbs where possible.
1. Tell me the title of the book that you have just mentioned. 2. I did not notice the person who has left the purse - here. 3. The person whose purse we have found will be informed about it. 4. You will like the place where we are going to. 5. A dog that barks never bites. 6. I am still under the impression of the concert which took place yesterday.
B. Find in an English text:
1. some sentences containing attributive relative restrictive clauses; 2. some sentences containing attributive relative non-restrictive clauses; 3. some sentences containing attributive non-restrictive continuative clauses which refer to the whole of the principal clause; 4. some sentences containing appositive clauses.
65. Join the following simple sentences into a complex one, using suitable connectives or asyndetically.
1. The long struggle in England between the dynasties of Lancaster and York lasted for 30 years. This struggle is known as the Wars of the Roses.
2. The only Roman theatre in Britain is on the outskirts of the town of St. Albans. There in the 1st century of our era stood the Roman town of Verulamium.
3. The City Walls have encircled the city of York since the 14th century. Along the top of the City Walls there runs a footpath.
4. King Harold was killed in the battle. His Anglo-Saxon troops were defeated by the Normans in the battle at Hastings in 1066.
5. The Norman kings ruled with the help of Norman nobles. They formed a governing body.
66. A. Complete the following sentences supplying attributive clauses.
1. He bought a collection of stamps in the shop ... 2. 1 shall never forget the day… 3. I do not know the stamp ... 4. A person ... must know geography well. 5. The stamp ... has been sent to me by a friend of mine. 6. The boy ... will gladly show his collection to you.
B. Insert appositive clauses using the conjunctions that, whether or the adverbs how, why.
1. Their proposal ... cannot be realized.
2. I don’t like the idea...
3. I’ve got rid of the horrible fear…
4. The news ... cheered us greatly.
5. His illness was the reason ...
6. The question ... seemed very important.
7. He expressed his doubt…
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
67. A. Define the kinds of adverbial clauses.
I. They stood waiting where they were. (Maugham). 2. When they knocked at her door Mrs. Davidson came out. 3 I did as she asked ... (Conan Doyle). 4. I cannot be at ease ... if someone else is in pain ... (Greene). 5. Eulalia was so moved that she could only weep again. (Coppard). 6. Lunch passed off better than I had dared to hope. (Du Maurier). 7. Though she had only twice seen Ferse, she recognised him at once. 8. He was furious with Mrs. Davidson and his wife because they made no effort to help. 9. I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Manner). 10. They liked to criticise my looks ..., they liked to watch how Maxim and I behaved to each other ..., so that they could go back afterwards and discuss us ... (Du Maurier).
B. Find in an English text some complex sentences containing all kinds of adverbial clauses.
68. Point out the adverbial clauses of time and place; isolate the connectives by which they are introduced.
1. He woke even before the bugle sounded. (Lawrence). 2. It was raining when we left London. (Du Maurier). 3. “But why shouldn’t they live here until things are settled?” said Lady Cherrell. (Galsworthy). 4. Adrian left as soon as he had drunk his coffee. (Galsworthy). 5. I was back where I had been before. (Du Manner). 6. She turned to where a few yards along the pavement a long bald man impatiently awaited her. (Cronin). 7. Now that Brodie had commenced to eat it was permissible for the others to begin ... (Cronin). 8. I was now free to live and work wherever I liked. (Moore). 9. I can cut his hair while I’m talking to him. (Galsworthy). 10. A sergeant was changing the sentries he came down the trench. (Aldington). 11. Come and put up with me till we get things straightened out. (Galsworthy). 12. The room was spacious ... The moment he entered it he felt that his premonition was correct. (Cronin). 13. It has not occurred to me to mention Peggotty since I ran away. (Dickens). 14. 1 shall always think so, as long as I live. (Dickens). 15. Hardly had she brought one gentleman into the little pantry behind the office ... then the wheezy hall-door bell clanged again. (Joyce). 16. “I’ll come anywhere you like,” said Ann.
69. Point out the adverbial clauses of manner, comparison, degree and result; isolate the conjunctions by which they are introduced.
1. Once I shivered as Pyle had done. (Greene). 2 The weather was wet and cold for quite a week, as it often can be in the vest country in early summer ... (Du Maurier). 3.“... I love her more than I have ever told you, far more.” (Wilde). 4. The doctor put the case as reasonably as he could ... (Maugham). 5. The change was so sudden that I was shocked and a little scared. 6. He always treated boys as if they were his equals. (Moore). 7. He went into the house by the back door ... as though he had something to hide. (Maugham). 8. Lily seldom made a mistake in the orders, so that she got on well with her three mistresses. (Joyce). 9. The little fellow ... gave such a lusty shout, that the sound of it made him bashful, and he buried his face in her skirts.
70. Point out the adverbial clauses of condition and concession; isolate the connectives by which they are introduced.
1. You gave her the wounds she died of. There is the truth for your comfort, however you like it. 2. I am devoted to Maxim .., though we always bicker like cat and dog when we meet. 3. Although she said nothing I felt guilty. 4. Unless I receive this requisition in full within an hour, I shall inform the Government that I cannot continue to hold my post if you remain in yours. 5. Whatever we do we must think of him as well as of ourselves”. (Galsworthy). 6. I liked his loyalty to Harding - whoever Harding was. 7. Really, it is as simple to buy a hotel or a railroad as it is to buy a watch, provided one is equal to the transaction. 8. Old as they were, her aunts also did their share. (Joyce).
71. Point out the adverbial clauses of cause and purpose; isolate the connectives by which they are introduced.
1. I called him Frank because Maxim did. (Du Maurier). 2. She asked me to leave the answer on the sundial in the garden as she desired no one to be in our confidence. (Conan Doyle). 3. I informed myself of the hour at which she left of an evening, in order that our visit might be timed accordingly. (Dickens). 4. Instinctively he turned his back more to the light lest she might see the shame that burned upon his forehead. 5. Since he seemed nervous even at the dress rehearsal, Isabel agreed not to go. (Bates). 6. Then I told her to hush, and not stir, for fear she should make him angry. (F. Bronte). 7. I’ll change the ticket so that you may be able to go with the evening train.
B. Make a list of the connectives used to introduce subordinate clauses of a) time, b) place, c) manner, d) comparison, e) degree, f) result, g) condition, h) concession, i) cause, j) purpose in the sentences given above.
72. Insert the appropriate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of time.
I. We have never seen him ................. he left for the Crimea. 2. Send me a telegram ………... you come. 3. ……….. he said it he felt it was wrong. 4. I made his acquaintance …………….. he had graduated from the University. 5. It had happened …………….. the experiment was completed. 6. Make hay ……………... the sun is shining. 7. I’ll be glad to see you ……………….... you come. 8. She was standing on the shore ........................ the ship was lost sight of. 9. ... ………… had I knocked at the door ... …………….it swung open. 10. Stay here ………….... you can. 11. ………….. the sky began to clear up, the air grew cooler. 12. ……….... had I opened the gate ………….. the dogs began to bark.
73. A. Define the kinds of clauses introduced by where and when.
1. I like the country place where we lived last year. 2. Let us meet where we used to walk in summer. 3. It is of importance where they will spend their vacation. 4. I wondered where they intended to go. 5. The question is where they will spend their summer vacation. 6. Do you know the time when he will come? 7. Everybody was glad when he came at last. 8. I have no idea when he will come. 9. It’s very important when we must start. 10. The difficulty is when we shall be able to do it.
Find in an English text some sentences with where and when introducing:
a) a subject clause, b) a predicative clause, c) an object clause, d) an attributive relative clause, e) an adverbial clause of place.
74. Complete the following sentences.
1. We are very fond of the little cottage where ... 2. Don’t you know where ... 3. Where ... is of no importance. 4. It happened where… 5. The problem to settle is where ... 6. She doesn’t tell me where … 7. They are quite happy where ... 8. For the last time she had a look at the house where ... 9. Where ... isn’t known to a single person. 10. That is where ... 11. I should like to find such a place where … 12. No plant can grow where ... 13. The day when ... was one of the happiest in my life. 14. I can’t work when ... 15. Nobody knows when ... 16. When ... is not settled yet. 17. The thing to decide is when ... 18. I felt tired when ... 19. I am interested to know when … 20. When ... interests me greatly. 21. The hour when… has not been changed. 22. The most important thing for us is when ... 23. Don’t you remember when ... 24. I shall never forget the moment when…
75. State what kind of clauses are introduced by as.
1. As she was descending the dark kitchen steps she heard Amy’ voice ... (Bennett). 2. As Gabriel never ate sweets, the celery had been left for him. (Joyce). 3. I’ll do as I like. 4. It is not so hot today as it was yesterday. 5. Women should think in moderation, as they should do all things in moderation. (Wilde). 6. Try as he might to reconstruct his changing ideas, Denny seemed fated to demolish them. (Cronin). 7. As she said those words she suddenly let fall her brush. (Mansfield). 8. She was at the station after all, standing just as he had imagined, apart from the others ... (Mansfield). 9. Gerald, come near to me. Quite close to me, as you used to do when you were a little boy ... (Wilde). 10. I went through the long drawing- room, as he had directed ... (Du Maurier). 11. But this writing- table, beautiful as it was, was no pretty toy ... (Du Maurier).
76. A. Complete the sentences supplying the principal clause in each of them.
1. Young as she is ...
2. As they were going along the road …
3. As a lot of people have a liking for this health resort …
4. As the wind was wrong and the waves were rather high …
5. As you usually do…
6. Early as it was …
B. Supply adverbial clauses of time, manner, cause, comparison, concession, or an attributive clause introduced by as.
1. ... the passengers began to wave their hands greeting their friends.
2. He held the oars …
3. ... the sailing-boat was moving rather slowly.
4. He likes swimming almost as much …
5. ... he could not move the boat against the current.
6. To steer a canoe you must-have such an oar …
77. Complete the following sentences so that they should contain a subordinate clause introduced by that (so that)
a) Subject clause
It is necessary that . . .;
It is of great importance that…:
b) Object clause
I’ve read that . . .;
Everybody knows that…
c) Attributive relative clause:
Where is the puppy that . . .;
Of all the pictures I like the one that
d) Appositive attributive clause:
He expressed his hope that…
I don’t quite like the idea that …
e) Adverbial clause of purpose:
She did it that . . .;
Let them know about it that
f) Adverbial clause of degree
It was oppressively hot that …
78. Comment on the use of so that and so... that. Define the kind of clauses. Translate.
1. “Was I breathing so loudly that you could hear me?” (Bennett). 2. It may be that I am too bound to him already who, robbing me, yet left me richer, so that in the mire of my life I found the pearl of price. 3. At first I was so rattled and taken aback that I was ready to think she has been led away in some extraordinary fashion. 4. A long inscription in bad Latin ... followed the course of this staircase, so that the climber read it word by word as he mounted step by step ... (Moore). 5. That bloody concrete barrack I live in now — it’s so clean and streamlined that I wouldn’t be at all surprised if it took to flight. 6. ... and boats are drawing near and passing away, so that the sunny river ... is dotted and decked with yellow, and blue, and orange ... (Jerome). 7. I wondered if it would be possible to hide ..., so that Frith ... would say “Madam must have gone out”. (Du Maurier) 8. At last it [the argument] grew so heated that the cook ... was called from the kitchen to be interpreter. (Lessing).
79. Complete the following sentences.
1. The more you ask him about it, the less …
2. The longer you wait, the slower …
3. The more rain falls, the better …
4. The more he thought, the more …
5. The harder one works, the better …
6. The fewer questions you ask, the better …
7. The longer one lives, the more …
8. The taller the basket-ball player is, the easier …
9. The tougher the meat is, the longer …
10. The brighter the sun shines, the better …
11. The nearer you come to the sea, the fresher …
12. The talk will be the more unpleasant, the longer …
80. Complete the following sentences supplying adverbial clauses of:
a) place 1. Their cottage stands where ... 2. Fetch it from where ... 3. I’d like to speak with you wherever …
b) time 1. We have not met since ... 2. I’ll do it while ... 3. Write to me as soon as ... 4. Don’t linger after ... 5. He will let you know when … 6. You can have a rest as long as ... 7. They went on talking until ... 8. The moment ... they rushed downstairs.
c) cause 1. I can’t give my consent because ... 2. Since ... I’ll not speak about it. 3. As ... it is difficult to find him at home. 4. He is very suspicious for fear that … 5. Seeing that ... he left their house.
d) purpose 1. We occupied the seat in the first row in order that ... 2. Put on your warm coat lest ... 3. We climbed up the hill so that
e) condition 1. If ... we shall see him to-morrow. 2. They will certainly be there in time provided ... 3. Should you ... tell him about his sister’s illness. 4. What will you write to him supposing ... 5. You won’t have the book unless ... 6. I promise you to do it on condition …
f) concession 1. Tired as ... he went on working. 2. Though ... the patient felt better. 3. Whoever ... you must see him again.
h) comparison 1. He felt better than .... 2. He looked tired as if ... 3. It was not so hot as ... 4. The young girl looked as beautiful as ... 5. She remembered every corner in the garden as though
81. Convert the following simple sentences in complex ones by introducing adverbial clauses (of time, manner, cause, condition, purpose, concession).
1. In the 8th century the Anglo-Saxons suffered much because of the frequent raids of the Danish tribes. 2. In spite of the strong resistance, the Danes seized the North Western part of the country. 3. During the reign of the Wessex king Alfred the fight of the Anglo-Saxons against the Danes was the hardest. 4. Alfred gathered his troops of free yeomen and knights to fight with the Danes. 5. Alfred stopped the advance of the Danes by paying them tribute. 6. He also built a fleet of 100 ships in order to be able to fight with the enemy on the sea.
ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
82. Analyse the following sentences.
1. Rather more than hall-way across from Denmark to England is a broad shoal known as the Dogger Bank, whose north-western margin has the appearance of a submerged escarpment sinking to deeper waters than those which lie south of the bank. 2. The southern end of the range in Derbyshire consists of a number of hills and dales so thinly covered with grass and small wild plants, that the bare limestone rock may often be seen. (Wide World Reader). 3 In consideration of the day and hour of my birth, it was declared by the nurse, and by some sage women in the neighbourhood who had taken a lively interest in me several months before there was any possibility of our becoming personally acquainted, first, that I was destined to be unlucky in life; and secondly, that I was privileged to see ghosts and spirits; both these gifts inevitably attaching, as they believed, to all unlucky infants of either gender, born towards the small hours on a Friday night. (Dickens). 4 I have come to the conclusion that the real reason for the author who exceeds the common span of man is that intelligent people after the age of thirty read nothing at all. (Maugham).
THE COMPOUND - COMPLEX SENTENCE
83. Analyse the following sentences.
1. The place where the Roman wall ended, near the north bank of the Tyne, is called Walls-end, and from that spot much of the best coal which is sold in London takes its name. (Wide World Read ).
2. The slope of the sea-bed, which is the true, though submerged, edge of the Continent, follows the coast of Norway seaward from the North Cape, then, crossing the mouth of the North Sea, it passes outside the Shetland Islands and the Hebrides to a point some distance westward of Ireland, where it makes an inward bend. (Mackinder).
3. At Stoneleigh the Avon enters a wide and beautiful park and is joined by the River Sowe coming past Coventry only three miles to the north, but there is not a sign in this lovely wooded estate that a great industrial city lies so close.
4. A few miles farther downstream one can see Guy’s Cliff on which a house stands high above the gently flowing Avon, its foundations being hewn out of the solid rock, and there are innumerable excavations around the courtyard which undoubtedly served as out-houses in days gone by.
5. The Avon at Warwick is a broad and placid stream, but it would not be so if it were not for weirs which at regular intervals frequently broaden the stream out into a much wider river than it would otherwise be.
6. The weirs were built so that they should produce a head of water to operate the many mills, but the Avon was also navigable to points above Stratford, until the building of the Great Western Railway put it out of business as a means of communication.
7. It is a fact that Warwick Castle has never been a ruin, like so many of old castles, but has continually been a place of residence, therefore it is just here that one can visualize something of what England in the Middle Ages must have been like.
8. The oldest part of the castle is Caesar’s Tower, which was built a few years after the Norman Conquest, while other parts have been added at various times, but always in exactly the right style, so that the castle has always retained its original character. (Geographical Magazine).
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
84. Comment on the use of tenses in the subordinate clauses.
1. Mary wired back that she would arrive on the following day. (Cronin). 2. All that day she did as she had told Parker she would. (Bates). 3. “I wanted to know,” I said, trembling, “if you would buy a jacket.” (Dickens). 4. Maxim rang up the next morning to say he would be back about seven. (Du Maurier). 5. “Don’t forget the old lady is nearly blind,” said Beatrice, “...I telephoned to the nurse that we were coming so everything will be right.” (Du Maurier). 6. He did not know what he was talking about. (Du Maurier). 7. And I added that I hoped she understood that it had nothing to do with me; she said that she was sure of that, but that she would speak to Tom about it when he came back (Jerome). 8. “At last, Sophie. I thought you were never coming.” (Huxley). 9. He could see nothing below surface at all; and ... he wondered what would happen if his father didn’t come up again. 10. I rose and said to Alice that I was going. (Braine). 11. “I knew it would happen one day,” said Maxim. (Du Maurier)
85. Turn the verbs in italics into the Past making all the other necessary changes.
1. She can’t remember what I told her. 2. Tom believes that you are right. 3. You have said that she knows you. 4. The children hope that Santa Claus will bring them many toys. 5. Jane regrets that she can’t give us more details about this accident. 6. I wonder what she is going to tell us this time. 7. Fred thinks that all his friends ‘viii come to his birthday party. 8. I don’t recall what they have said. 9. We can’t anticipate what he will do now. 10. I remember that I saw him somewhere.
86. Select the correct form of the verbs given in brackets:
1. Harris thought he (would buy; will buy) a new house soon. 2. Our friends’ asked us why the train (has not arrived; had not arrived) yet. 3. Fred admits that he still (has; had) little experience in this field now. 4.She had to promise him that she (will help; would help) them. 5. The engineer claimed that he (agrees; agreed) with the others. 6. John didn’t remember what he (told; had told) me the day before. 7. I didn’t know that she (must; had to) leave at 5 o’clock. 8. We guess father (hasn’t heard; hadn’t heard) this news yet. 9. Did Jane tell you that she (is going; was going) to move to a new house? l0. We were sure that they (will come ; would come) by the evening train. 11. The pupils already knew that the teacher (has corrected; had corrected) their papers. 12. I promised her that I (will lend; would lend) her the book after I (finished; had finished) it. 13. I am sure that Thomas (will come; would come) here when he (feels; will feel) better. 14. I wish I (know; knew) what the boys (are doing; were doing) there at the moment. 15. When I (leave; will leave) school next year, I (will learn; will have learnt) here for seven years. 16. When (did you see; have you seen) him last? 17. This time yesterday you (told were telling) me how busy you (are; were) and what your plans for the future (are; were). 18. I explained that she (will be playing; would be playing) the piano at that time.
87. Use the appropriate form of the verb.
1. He told me that in all his years he never ___ so much blossom (saw, had seen). (Moore). 2. I replied that I — very well, and that I — she — the same (am, was; hope, hoped; is, was). (Dickens). 3. In the morning Miss Murdstone ... told me I — going to school (am, was). (Dickens). 4. Miss Murdstone was good enough to say on the way that she — I —, before I — to a bad end (hopes, hoped; will repent, would repent; come, came). (Dickens). 5. I wondered what I — with my day (shall do, should do). (Du Maurier). 6. “I wrote and said I —,“ replied Mary (am coming, was coming). (Cronin). 7. “Joe told me you — to the Legation. I thought it ____easier to talk here” (have been, had been; will be, would be). (Greene). 8. I answered that I — he — never again (think, thought; will smile, would smile). (Jerome). 9. I thought I — you (know, knew). (Jerome). 10. It unnerved him to think that she — at the supper- table, looking up at him while he — with her critical eyes (will be, would be; speaks, spoke). (Joyce).
88. Supply the correct tense (Present; Past Tense; Present Perfect; Past Perfect; Future)
A. 1. Arnold (to be) _________________ born in a village and he (to spend) ______________ his childhood there. He (to move) ______________ to Leeds when he (to be)____________ fifteen years old and he (to live) ___________there since his sister (to get) ___________ married. 2. At present, he (to work) ___________in an office but he (to use) _____________ to work at a bank before. 3. Next year he (to go) ____________ to London to study at the University, but only after he (to finish) ______________ writing the novel he (to work) _________________ at now. 4. I (to write) _____________ to him a long letter several days ago and (to ask) ________________ him how many chapters he already (to write)____________. 5. Arnold’s daughter hopes that her father (to finish) _______________ his book by the end of August. 6. I (to see) ____________her yesterday while she (to cross) _____________ the street. 7. When I (to talk) __________ to her, she (to tell) ________________ me that she (to be) ______________ very tired because she (to type) _____________ all the morning.
B. 1. As soon as she (to see) ______________us, he (to stop) ____________singing. 2. The tailor (to promise) ____________ me then that my suit (to be) _____________ ready in a week’s time, 3. Why didn’t you explain to them when you (to be) ______________ able to give them the money back? 4. I wondered where he (to study) _______________ and how many years before he (to take) ______________ his degree. 5. Before paper (to be) _______________ invented, people (to write) ______________ their thoughts upon various other materials. 6. History (to be) ____________ engraved on stone monuments and our knowledge of what ancient people (to do) ______________, (to be) ________________ chiefly taken from the stone tables and buildings which they (to erect) _______________.
90. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate verb in the correct tease:
1. The Chinese are said to be so clever that they ... gunpowder long before it ... known in Europe. 2. Galileo Galilei was persecuted because he ... that the earth ... around the sun, 3. As soon as she ... the letter, the will read it to us, too. 4. I asked the old man who ... on the bench if he ... hungry. 5. When Christopher Columbus ... America, he thought that the country which ... discovered India, and he accordingly ... it the name of the West Indies. 6. 1 will not go to bed until father ... home from the factory. 7. Last year you played tennis much better than your brother ... now. 8. It’s high time you … these questions. 9. I don’t know precisely whether I ... on this trip next week. 10. Tom was promised that everything ... ready in due time. 11. When I ... young, I ... fishing every Sunday. 12. I’ll let them know that we ... a new car soon. 13. Did you know that Mary ... two sons? 14. Your sister spoke English as if she ... in England for several years. 15. This is the dress which Mary ... last week and which she ... still now. 16. I wish my brother ... here now to help me. 17. I promised the little child that I … a new toy the next day. 18. When I ... to the bookshop two days ago, I ... a book which my sister .., now. 19. I would rather you ... them my secret. 20, When I ... the window, I saw that my daughter ... with the doll, while my son ... after a cat. 21. I am sure our friend ... this text after she ... the new words. 22. That morning Jane ... to school only after she ... a big glass of milk. 23. 1 no sooner ... his face than I ... his name, too. 24. We ... anything about her since she ... to London. 25. Only then she ... that I … right! 26. This time tomorrow, we … TV while you ... for your exam. 27. Last week I ... three ice creams, but this week I ... only one. 28. When Bob ... little, he ... with his toys for hours. 29. You already ... all the exercises? 30. Nothing annoyed me so much as the discovery that my best friend ... to me.
INDIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT STATEMENTS
91. Convert into indirect speech.
1. “Nobody will ever know, on this line,” we said, “what you are, or where you’re going ... “Well, I don’t know, gents,” replied the noble fellow, “but I suppose some train’s got to go to Kingston. (Jerome). 2. “The map may be all right enough,” said one of the party, “if you know whereabouts in it we are now.” (Jerome). 3. “We met your niece on the road,” said Ashurst... (Galsworthy). 4. “... I don’t hunt,” I confessed, “I learned to ride, as a child, but I don’t remember much about it.” (Du Maurier). 5. “You know Mr. Davidson very little if you think the fear of personal danger can stop him in the performance of his duty,” said his wife. (Maugham). 6. I said, “I’ve ordered dinner for all of you.” (Greene). 7. “When I met you first you had a certain expression on your face,” he said slowly, “and you have it still (Du Maurier). 8. “Mrs. de Winter says we shan’t know her,” said Frank. (Du Maurier).
92. Report the following statements that you heard at 7 a.m. this morning. Do you need to change the tense?
1. Women live longer than men."
I heard that...
2. "I'm hungry."
Claire said that...
3. "Our galaxy contains several thousand million stars."
An astronomer announced that...
4. "The 2012 Olympics will be organised in Africa."
A sports expert said that...
5. "This coffee is too hot."
Jonathan complained that ...
93. Insert the verbs to say or to tell in the appropriate form.
1. Harris — them they could follow him if they liked ... They — it was very kind of him ... (Jerome). 2. When Megan brought his tea he — “What’s the gipsy bogle, Megan?” (Galsworthy). 3. Gretta thinks it very funny because she — the word reminds her of Christy Minstrels.” (Joyce). 4. “— me what she’s trying to—,” he — ... “Cyril only wanted to — you, father dear, that his father is still very fond of meringues.” (Mansfield). 5. “I ... I’d rather hear what you were going— first,” said Constantia. (Mansfield). 6. Johnny — her of the grand tea they had had. And while he was also — her about the quarrel Mr. Sulky came tripping down the stairs. (Coppard). 7. “Go and — him, you go and — him.” (Bates). 8. Of course, I — myself, he might have been detained for some reason at the American Legation ... (Greene). 9. “You know all I can — you about Pyle (Greene). 10. Vigot—wearily, ... “He’ll have a terrible lot — to me.” (Greene). 11. He—, “But that’s just what I— him, but he always pretends not to understand French.” (Greene). 12. “As a friend,” Vigot —‘ “is there nothing you could — me in confidence?” (Greene).
94. Complete the following sentences.
1. I hoped (that) …
2. He reminded me (that) the programme …
3. They declared (that) she …
4. They informed us (that) the time-table …
5. She replied (that) …
6. They supposed (that) …
7. He imagined (that) …
8. Everybody thought (that) …
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
95. Convert into indirect speech.
1. He ... said: “Can you tell us if there’s a farm near here where we could stay the night? I’ve got lame.” (Galsworthy); 2. Ashurst said idly: “Where were you standing when you saw the gipsy bogle, Jim?” (Galsworthy). 3. “Good morning,” she called. “Is Mr. David son better this morning?” (Maugham). 4. “Don’t you think we ought to make Mr. Horn turn her out of here?” asked Mrs. Davidson. (Maugham). 5. “Does anybody ever come here?” Davy asked. him. Aldridge). 6. “Did you find something to drink?” he asked Davy. 7. “Tell me, Lily,” he said in a friendly tone, “do you still go to school?” (Joyce). 8. “Why have you a piece of pencil in your ear?” he asked. (Lawrence). 9. I said to Vigot, “What hours are you interested in?” (Greene). 10. “How old is your father?” Miss Hei asked with gluttony. (Greene). 11. “What is Giles going to wear to-night?” I asked, “or is it a dead secret?” (Du Maurier). 12. “How long will it take me to paint my face?” asked Giles. (Du Maurier). 13. “What’s the time?” I said carelessly ... (Du Maurier). 14. “What are you standing there for?” he said, his voice harsh and queer. “Didn’t you hear what I said? (Du Maurier).
96. Complete the following sentences.
1. She asked if …
2. She was interested to know how …
3. She wondered when …
4. She wanted to know where …
5. She asked in wonder what …
6. She wanted to find out by whom …
7. They asked me why …
8. She inquired what kind of …
9. She would like to know on what condition …
97. Convert the following into indirect speech; use different introductory verbs.
Model: Do you ever work in the garden?
She asked me if I ever worked in the garden.
1. What sort of flowers do you like?
2. Why have these flowers opened so soon?
3. Where will you plant those lovely poppies?
4. Have you ever seen a cherry orchard in blossom?
5. Do you water the flowers in the morning or in the evening?
6. Are tulips shade-loving flowers?
7. Who has broken the boughs of the lime-tree?
8. When do you usually sow peas?
9. Must these black currant bushes be transplanted this year?
98. Complete the following sentences supplying object clauses by arranging the given words in the proper order.
1. She, asked, dinner, I, me, if, had, my, had.
2. …. I, had, where, had, lunch.
3. … got up, o’clock, I, at, usually, what.
4. … fish, I, eat, why, not, did.
5. … exhibition, we, to go, intended, when, to, the.
6. … was, what, such kind of, price, shirt, the, of.
7. … on, night, people, had been, previous, party, the, present, how many, the, at.
8. … I that, it, how long, him, to reach, would, country place, take.
9. … health-resort, them, that, ever, to, whether, had been, they, to.
10. … my, bought, I, where, had, dictionary.
INDIRECT ORDERS AND REQUESTS
99. Convert into indirect speech.
I. “Ask Miss Thompson when it would be convenient for me to see her,” he said. (Maugham). 2. “Sit up,” he told Davy, “if you want to see how to approach.” Aldridge). 3. “Bring me the two green, bags from the floor,” he said, “and keep your head covered against the sun...” 4. “And don’t throw any stones in the water,” his father said ... “It frightens everything in sight. Even the sharks (Aldridge 5. “And don’t worry about me,” he ordered the boy. (Aldridge). 6. “Come along, Pyle,” I said. “Leave them to changer.” 7. “I’ll come down when I am ready,” I called. “Go on down ... Don’t wait for me. Tell Maxim he can’t come in.” (Du Mau rier). 8. “Go and change,” he said, “it does not matter what you put on. Find an ordinary evening frock, anything will do. Go now before anybody comes.” (Du Maurier). 9. “Don’t let the others see you like that,” I said. “Go to your bedroom and do something to your face.” 10. ... “Sit down for a few minutes and you’ll be all right,” she said, “wait, I’ll give you a glass of water.” (Du Maurier).
MIXED EXERCISES ON INDIRECT SPEECH
100. Convert into direct speech.
1. He said he was very fond of travelling. 2. He said he was looking forward to visiting the place where the great Scottish poet Robert Burns had spent his early life. 3. He declared he would never forget the lovely and romantic scenes of Scotland he had seen during his visit to Britain. 4. He assured me he had been dreaming to visit all these spots of interest since he read Walter Scott’s novels for the first time. He informed me that it was possible for everyone to get acquaint with all the loveliest spots of those parts. 16. He warned me against my coming, as he would be developing his films at that time. 7. She declared that mountaineering was her favourite kind of sport. 8. He tried to persuade me that long walks would do me a world of good. 9. He said he was surprised I had not been training since morning. 10. She asked me what kind of sport I went in for. 11. She was interested to know if we should take part in the running race. 12. They wondered which of the teams had a better chance of success. 13. 1 asked the t to tell me if he thought I could take part in the match. 15. I inquired of him if a stroke in cricket required great strength of the player. 16. The boy was eager to know if I had ever seen a parachutist jump from an aeroplane. 17. He asked me to tell him who was playing tennis on the court. 18. My brother wanted to find out who had lost his tennis balls.19. He asked me when I had last been to a football match. 20. He wondered whether the goal had been scored before the final whistle was given. 21. I asked her if she liked the new opera she had heard the day before.22. I wondered when she had been at the concert last. 23. Everybody wondered if the young man would agree to act the leading part in the play. 24. The young actor inquired eagerly whether we liked his acting. 25. My sister always asks me not to economize by taking cheap tickets in the last row. 26. She begged me not to be late for the concert. 27. My friend advised me to read “King Lear” in the original before going to see the performance of the tragedy. 28. At the theatre I was obliged to tell my neighbours not to talk during the performance. 29. I persuaded thy friend to let her daughter go to the concert as she was very fond of music. 30. A friend of mine suggested that we should take season tickets to the State Opera House. 31. The father forbade his son to go to the cinema because lie had not prepared his lessons for the next day. 32. The young man asked his parents not to worry about him saying that he might return home rather late as he had been invited to a house-warming party that night. 33. He asked me to speak more distinctly. 34. All the listeners urged the actor to recite another poem saying that they had never heard poetry recited so well.
A. Convert into indirect speech.
On entering the old lady’s room he said, I hope I haven’t interrupted your work!”
— “Of course not. Sit down, please. Have a cup of tea?”
— “Thanks, I’ve had my tea.”
She said, “I haven’t seen you for ages. How is your wife?”
— “She is all right now!” he answered. “Don’t you want to come and see our baby? My wife says she is a darling.”
— “Don’t you think so?”
— “Of course, I do. But I think I’ll love her more when she grows up,” he added.— The old lady smiled, “That’s a tender father!”
B. Find in an English text
four sentences with an object clause expressing 1) indirect statements; 2) in direct questions introduced by a) the conjunction if or whether, b) a conjunctive pronoun or adverb; 3) Indirect commands or requests a) in the affirmative form, b) in the negative form.
101. Match the sentences with appropriate reporting verbs from the list. Then write the reported sentences.
admit, boast, forbid, inquire, invite, order, suggest, threaten
1. We'll close credit lines if you don't reduce carbon dioxide emission.
2. OK, you're right, some poisonous chemicals did escape into the atmosphere.
3. Why don't you drop in tonight?
4. Stand up immediately!
5. I'm the best student in this school!
6. You can't use your dictionaries during the test.
7 Shall we have a cup of tea?
8. Is the bus service running according to the timetable today?
102. Use the following verbs to report the two dialogues.
a) admit, advise, promise, warn
Tom: I don't think you should play the game today, John.
John: You're right. I'm still a little bit ill, but I promise I won't overdo it.
Tom: Be careful, if you run around too much in this weather you may get another attack of flu.
b) accuse, beg, complain, deny, explain, refuse
Daughter: Mum, please, will you buy me this CD? I've always wanted it.
Mother: Sarah, you know I can't afford it. Why do you always ask me to buy you expensive things?
Daughter: That's not true. You just never buy me things that I want only those that you like!
REFERENCE LIST
1. Bădescu A. Gramatica limbii Engleze. Bucureşti 1963.
2. Cataraga A. Difficulties in Translating of Some of the Prepositions of Place. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universitaţii de Stat din Moldova CE USM, Chişinău 2003.
3. Cauşanskaia V.L., Kovner R.L. A grammar of the English Language. Prosveshcenie,Leningrad 1963.
4. Cauşanskaia V.L., Kovner R.L. English Grammar. Exercises. Prosveshcenie, Leningrad 1968.
5. Close R.A. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. London 1977.
6. Fîrnoaga G. G. Gramatica limbii engleze. Omega pres, Lucman, Bucureşti 1998.
7. Fuchs M., Bonner M. Grammar Express For Self-Study and Classroom Use. Longman, 2002
8. Ganshina M. A., Vasilevskaya N. M. English Grammar. Higher School Publishing House, 1964.
9. Harris M., Mower D., Sikorzynska A. Opportunities Upper Intermediate, Student’s Book, Longman 2002.
10. Harris M., Mower D., Sikorzynska A. Opportunities Intermediate, Student’s Book. Longman 2002.
11. Melenciuc D. Practical Modern English Grammar. CE USM, Chişinău 2003,
12. Munro H. H., The Complete Short Stories Saki. Penguin Books,
13. Murphy R. English Grammar in Use. Second edition, Cambridge University Press 1994.
14. Paidos C. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti 2001.
15. Poltavtseva E. A., Exercises on English Grammar on Cards, International Relations Publishing House, Moscow, 1967
16. Thomson A. J., Martinet A.V. A Practical English Grammar, Exercises 1, Third edition, Oxford University Press 1986.
17. Thomson A. J., Martinet A.V. A Practical English Grammar, Exercises 2, Third edition, Oxford University Press 1986.
18. Soars L. and J. New Headway, Upper Intermediate, Student’s Book, Oxford University Press 2003.
19. Soars L. and J. New Headway, Intermediate, Student’s Book, Oxford University Press 2002.
20. Кошманова И. Тесты по Английскому Языку. Издание второе, исправленное. Айрис Пресс, Ролъф, Москва 2000.
21. Практическая Грамматика Английского Языка. Вышэйшая школа, Минск 1989.
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Case
Nominative
Genitive
adverb. modif.
attribute
Predicative
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object
subject
gender
number
case
Number
syntactical
morphological
Characteristics
plural
singular
compound
masculine
Gender
Number
using a word that indicates sex
using different words
adding suffixes
neuter
feminine
derivative
simple
Nouns
common
Article
definite: the
indefinite: a, an
Adjective
Morphological characteristics
Syntactical characteristics
attribute
predicative
degrees of comparison
comparative
superlative
Adjectives
simple
derivative
compound
Adjectives
qualitative
relative
Adverbs
According to the structure
According to the meaning
simple
derivative
compound
composite
time
frequency
place and direction
Compound
degree, measure, and quantity
cause and consequence
Composite
manner
degree, measure, quantity
adverbial
distribu-
tive adverbial
multipli-cative adver-bial
ordinal
cardinal
numeral
Verbs
regular
irregular
Subjunctive
Synthetical
Analytical
Present
Past
Past Perfect
The Participle
The Present Participle
The Past Participle
Prepositions
According to their form
According to their meaning
simple
derivative
compound
composite
place and direction
time
abstract relations
secondary
imperative
emotional
primary
According to their meaning:
Interjections
The simple sentence
subordinate
coordinating
conjunctional phrases
correlative
negative
connecting
intensifying
limiting
Particles according to their meaning:
compound
simple
According to their function
According to their form
Conjunctions
According to the purpose of utterance
According to the structure
declarative
interrogative
imperative
exclamatory
two-member
one-member
The subject it
notional
formal
impersonal
introductory
or anticipatory
emphatic
Predicate
Simple
Compound
Compound nominal
Compound verbal
Compound verbal modal predicate
Compound verbal aspect predicate
The secondary parts of the sentence
object
attribute
adverbial modifiers
The object
direct
indirect
complex
cognate
of the first type
of the second type
The apposition
close
loose or detached
purpose
time
fre-quency
place
man-ner
attendant circum-stances
degree and measure
cause
result
condi-tion
com-pari-son
con-cession
adverbial modifier
of
The independent elements of the sentence
Interjections
Direct Address
Parenthesis
The compound sentence
is connected
syndetically by means of:
asyndetically (without connectives)
coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, else, for, yet, but, still, etc
conjunctive adverbs: otherwise, however, still, yet, etc.
subor-dinate clauses
Sub-ject
Pre-dica-tive
Direct Object
Prep. Ind. Object
Attri-butive
Time
Place
Cause
Con-dition
Pur-pose
Con-cession
Result
Man-ner
Com-pa-rison
adverbial clauses of time
conditional clauses
direct object clauses
It applies to
Conditional
Subjunctive
analytical (words and word order)
synthetic (inflections)
Flexional Languages
Imperative
Indicative
Moods
Alternative
Special
General
Questions
Disjunctive
Past Tense
(main clause)
a) Past Perfect (sub. clause)
(to express an anterior/prior action)
b) Past Tense (sub. clause)
(to express a simultaneous action)
I thought they were at home.
c) Future-in-the-past (sub. clause)
(to express a posterior action)
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