Roman Legionary Fortresses and the Cities of Modern Europe

[Pages:45]Roman Legionary Fortresses and the Cities of Modern Europe Author(s): Thomas H. Watkins Source: Military Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Feb., 1983), pp. 15-25 Published by: Society for Military History Stable URL: . Accessed: 09/05/2011 18:10 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . . JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . . . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@.

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RomanLegioncirfyortresseasondthe Ctiesof ModernEurope

by Thomas H. Watkins Western Illinois University

England

IN assessing theRoman contributionto westernhistory,it is

customarytostresswhatmaybe broadlytermedtheimperial achievement:theacquisitionand maintenanceofan empirefor several centuriesand theconversionofconqueredpeoples from subjects to partnersin Roman civilization.One ofthestrongest agents in thisimperial achievementwas the army,whose role includedmuchmore thanits primaryfunctionofconquestand

defense.The armywas a powerfulfactorin Romanization.Indeed, lifein thearmywas probablythemosteffectivemeans of spreadingtheRoman wayoflifethroughouttheprovincesofthe Empire,especiallyamongthoseclasses ofthepopulationwhich

suppliedmostoftherecruits.Latinwas thelanguageofthearmy, and thesoldierstookit withthemwherevertheyserved. Countless thousandsofpeople acquired at least a veneerofromanitas throughserviceinorcontactwiththemilitaryT. heRomanarmy also contributedto theurbanizationofwesternEurope in thata numberofitscamps have livedonthroughtimetobecome moderncities.Examples ofthislegacyfromEnglandand Europe,not as oftenobserved as theyoughtto be, are the subject of the

presentstudy.

Two preliminarypointsare to be noted. First, in the early centuriesoftheEmpire therewere essentiallytwokindsofsoldiers: legionaries and auxiliaries. The formerwere recruited fromRoman citizensand served for20 years in the legions of some 5,200men; thelatterwere drawnfromthenon-citizennativepeoples, served 25-yearenlistmentsin theinfantrycohorts and cavalry "wings" of either500or 1,000men, and received Roman citizenshipondischarge.Second,writersin Englishcustomarilydesignatelegionarybases as fortressesa,nd all smaller bases, whetherforauxiliaryunitsor detachmentsoflegions,as forts.It is withthefortressesalone thatwe are here concerned.

The Romans regardedcitylifeas synonymouswithcivilized life: "urban" was civilized,"rustic" and "rural" and were not. More important,it was Roman policy to use cities as unitsof

governmentwheneverpossible, workingthroughthem where theyalready existedand establishingnewones wheretherewere none.SometimesRome foundedcoloniesofdischargedveterans bothto rewardthe time-servedsoldiersand to impressthe nativeswithurbanlife.Such citieswereintendedtobe showplaces of Roman grandeur,deliberatelydesigned to impress all who visited or resided in them. As the second-centuryA.D. writer AulusGelliusputit,colonieswere "littlecopies and images" of Rome, reflectingthegloryofthecapital intheprovinces(Noctes Atticae 16.13.9.).Colonieswerethehighestcategoryofcityinthe Empire, bothprestigiousand privileged,fortheymirroredthe magnificenceofRome andgenerallypossessedvaluable rightsof self-governmenatndtax-exemptionas well.Theyoftenservedas provincialcapitals and centersoftheimperialcult (worshipof the goddess Roma and the deifiedemperors). As examples we can pointtoAntioch-by-PisidianAsia Minor,Colchesterin Britain,CologneinGermany,LyoninFrance, MeridainSpain,and Timgad inAfrica.1Ata lowerlevel,Tacitus describesthepolicy ofAgricolaas governorofBritainin80A.D. workingtopersuade

FEBRUARY 1983

the natives to take up citylife.Agricola made good use ofthe Winter:

For, toaccustomtorestand repose throughthecharms ofluxurya populationscatteredand barbarousand thereforeinclinedtowar,Agricolagave privateencouragement and publicaid to thebuildingoftemples,courtsofjustice and dwelling-housesp,raisingtheenergeticand reproving theindolent.Thus an honourablerivalrytooktheplace of compulsion.He likewiseprovideda liberal educationfor thesonsofthechiefs,and showedsucha preferenceforthe naturalpowersoftheBritonsovertheindustryoftheGauls that theywho lately disdained the tongueof Rome now covetedits eloquence. Hence, too,a likingforourstyleof dress, and the "toga" became fashionable.Step by step they were led to the thingswhich dispose to vice, the lounge,thebath,theelegantbanquet. All thisin theirignorancetheycalled civilization,whenit was buta partof their servitude.

(Agricola 21; ModernLibrary trans.)

Armycamps stimulatedeconomicgrowthandquasi-municipal developmentall alongthefrontiersa,nd threetypesofcommunityemerged.The first,canabae ("huts,sheds"), consistedofthe collectionof buildings- workshops,warehouses,stores,inns, houses, brothels- located adjacent to legionaryand auxiliary bases everywherein the Empire. Theirinhabitantsserved the manyneedsofthegarrisons- freshfoods,leathergoods,drinks, women- and the soldiersdoubtlesswelcomedtheirpresence. Equally certainlythecanabae didsomethingtoRomanize many thousandsof provincials.The extentto whichcanabae contributedtourbangrowthis notso clear,forthoughtheytendedtobe more or less permanentcommunities(given that army units remainedin thesame camps foryears), theywere oftenrather ramshackle,unplannedaffairs,stragglingalongoneortworoads leading to one of the main gates of a base. The canabae of a fortressweremorelikelytoexhibittruemunicipalfeaturesthan were those ofthe small auxiliaryforts.Further,it is probable thatcanabae wereunderthejurisdictionofthemilitary,whose officersregardedthemas necessaryevilsanddeniedthemmuch in theway ofdevelopmentand self-governmentc;anabae were on armyproperty(territoriumlegionis) and could be abolished at the command of the military.2

The second type of communityoriginatingin proximityto armybases was thevicus. Oftengrowingup a mileormoreaway fromthe fortand so not on army land, the vicus was a true communityofits own,legallyindependentofthemilitarycommand.Manywealthymerchantstookup residenceinthevici, as did retiredsoldiersand provincialsanxiousto get ahead. Veterans, who were fairlywell Romanized aftertheirlongtoursof duty,tendedto marrynativewomenand settledownafterdischargeinthevici near thebases wheretheirunitshad longbeen stationed.Generousprovisionsofdischargeextendedcitizenship totheveterans'wivesand childrenand thuspromotedextensive Romanizationin these towns.As a consequence,some ofthese places attainedconsiderablesize, thoughtherewas a wide gra-

15

dationinthem.Attheupperend,some vici nearfortressesorthe moreimportantauxiliaryfortsbecame sufficientlyRomanized

tobe recognizedas municipiaoreven,bytheearlythirdcentury A.D., promotedto coloniae.3This developmentwas evidently given officialencouragementalong the Danube and in Dacia, wheremostcitiesbegan as vici. Yorkin England appears to be analogous,thevicusgrowingup across theOuse fromthefortress and beinggrantedcolonialstatusca. 211-217A. tthelowerendof thespectrum,therewas littletodistinguishvicus fromcanabae at themoreremotefrontierposts.What,forinstance,shouldwe makeofVindolandaonHadrian's Wall?Itwas a prettymiserable place whencomparedwiththegreatvicioftheDanube,butyetits inhabitantsas thevici Vindolandesseshad enoughsense ofcommunityto dedicate an altar to Vulcan.4

Thethirdand mostimportantypeofcommunityunderconsiderationhereis thatwhichoriginatedas orin- notnearorbeside

- a legionaryfortressA. s alwaysthereis variation,andnosingle statementis valideverywhereI.nessence,however,thesituation is fairlysimple. Sometimesfortressesofthe early Empire became citiesaftertheendoftheRomanperiod.In otherinstances therewas an intermediatephase: aftersomeyearsordecades of occupationa legionabandoneditsfortressto move to a position closer to the frontier,and the old base was convertedinto a civiliancoloniawhichin turnenduredthroughtheMedieval into moderntimes. England affordstwo examples of the former, Chesterand York,and twoofthelatter,Gloucesterand Lincoln. In bothtypes,whatis ofinterestis thatthemoderncities show somethingoftheirmilitarybeginningsintheirstreetplans,walls, and gates.

Ofcourse,notall fortresseshave become moderncities.A few bases are known to have been occupied only temporarily. Inchtuthild,iscussedbelow,was neverfinishedat all. Usk,onthe riverofthesame name,was abandonedca. 70afternomorethan 15 years of use. Modern research, particularlyaerial photography,has turnedup a numberofseasonal ormarchingcamps. The militaryhistoryof Exeter is controversial,but a fortress evidentlypreceded establishmentof the native town ca. 80.

Wroxeteris similar,as firsttheXIVth (ca. 57-66)and thenthe XXth (66-ca. 78, withperhaps a small caretaker garrisonfor anotherdecade) was in residence beforecreationofthenative town.ColchesterbeganitsRomanlifeas thebase ofLegionXX in 43. Elementsofthecamp weretransmittedto thecoloniawhich was foundedwithinthedisused and even dismantledfortressin 49/50,and fromthe colonytheyhave come downto today.5

It may be of some interestto note that London,by far the largestcityinRomanBritainas inmodernEngland,was nevera legionaryfortressat all. Asmall fortwas constructedjustoutside the northwestcornerof the cityand in the thirdcenturywas includedinLondinium'swall. Itsgarrisonwas thehonorguardof the governorand was thus composed primarilyof legionaires probablydrawnfromall ofthelegionsoftheprovince.The modernvisitoris hard-putofindanysignofthisfort'sinfluenceinthe growthofthe city.6

A good illustrationofa fortresswhichis nowbut a village is CaerleonontheUsk riverinsouthWales (see Figure 1). Threeof theold gates are stillpierced by streets,butotherwisethereis littlesignofindebtednesstotheRomanpast,thoughwe do meet here a phenomenonencountered frequentlyelsewhere - a churchonthesiteoftheheadquartersbuilding.(In partthismay be because churcheswereoftenbuiltat major intersectionsa,nd as willbe pointedoutshortlytheHQ was always at thecenterof the camp. But since the HQ containeda chapel forthe unit's standards,therewas holygroundthere,suitable,aftercleansing andrededicationfo, ra churchO. ftentheverystonesoftheoldHQ werere-usedintheChristiabnuilding.K) nowntotheRomansas Isca,thefortresws asevidentlyevacuatedlateinthethirdcenturyanddemolisheidnthefourthT.heciviliantownseemsnever

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tohave developedmuch,as it was overshadowedbythedistrict townat Caerwentsome7 milesaway.7SoonIsca was inruins,but its name lived on in legend: the medieval memorieswere far moregloriousthantheRomanrealitieshad everbeen.Writingin the1130s,GeoffreyofMonmouthtellshis readers thattheCityof theLegions was an archepiscopaldiocese and thatKingArthur held a plenarycourtthere: no wonder,fortheplace had gilded gables and was theequal ofRome! Some 50yearslaterGeraldof Wales makes it even more splendid:

Caerleonmeans theCityofLegions,Caer, intheBritish language, signifyinga cityor camp, fortheretheRoman legions,sentintothisisland, were accustomedto winter, and fromthiscircumstanceit was styledthe Cityofthe Legions. This citywas ofundoubtedantiquity,and handsomely builtof masonry,withcourses of bricks,by the Romans. Manyvestigesofitsformersplendourmayyetbe seen: immensepalaces, formerlyornamentedwithgilded roofs,in imitationof Roman magnificence,inasmuchas they were firstraised by the Roman princes, and embelished with splendid buildings; a tower of prodigious size, remarkablehotbaths,relicsoftemples,and theatres, all enclosed withinfine walls, parts of which remain standing.You willfindonall sides,bothwithinand without the circuitof walls, subterraneousbuildings,aqueducts, undergroundpassages; and whatI thinkmostworthyof notice,stovescontrivedwithwonderfualrt,totransmitthe heat insensiblythroughnarrowtubespassing up theside walls.8

THE cities whichremain to be dealt withshowa closerre-

lationshipto theirlegionaryorigins.By the mid-firsctenturyA.D., thelayoutofa legionarycamp had become moreor lessstandardize(dseeFigure2,a simplifievdersionofInchtuthil constructeodntheTay riverabovePerthin Scotlandanddemolishedbeforecompletionabout88).9 Theditchandwall (of stonein permanentcamps, otherwisean earthenrampart strengthenaenddfacedwithtimbere)nclosedanareaofsome50

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acres.A gridofstreetsdividedthefortresisntosectionsb, utof thesestreetsonlythreeareimportanftorthepresentpurposes. Themainstreetwasthevia praetoria,whichranfromtheporta praetoria(intheoryfacingtheenemyt) othecenterofthecamp. Thereitformeda T intersectiowniththevia principaliswhich ranacrosstheshortaxis ofthecamp.Theprincipia,orheadquartersbuildings,toodat thisjunctiona; s onefacedfromit downthevia praetoria,theportaprincipalisdextrawastoone's rightandthep.p.sinistratoone'sleft.Theothermainstreetof thecampwasthevia decumana,whichbeganatthereargateor portadecumana andheadedintothecampona linewiththevia praetoria. The commandingofficer'sresidence was the praetorium,locatednexttotheHQ- eithertothesideorbehind it.Mostoftheinternaslpace was takenup withthe60barrackblockso, neforeachofthelegion'scenturiesO.therbuildingasre thehousesofthesixtribune(sTRontheplan),granaries(GR),a hospitala,nd workshop.T10o findlegionarylegaciesonemust lookat theoriginacloreofwhatis nowoftena sprawlingurban mass:theapproximatel5y0-acrne ucleusofnearlytwomillennia oflife.

Legionarybases contributetdotheurbanizatioonfEngland, forwhilethefortresastCaerleondidnotdevelopintoa cityt,hose at ChesterandYorkdid,and thoseat GloucesterandLincoln becamefirstcoloniesandsubsequentlmy oderncities.Chester (Deva), as faruptheDee Riveras seagoingvesselscouldreach, wasbuiltforLegioII Adiutriixn75-79b,utca. 88thatlegionleft Britain,and XX Valeria Victrixwas transferredin from Inchtuthiinl thefarnorthX; XV.V.remainedinresidenceuntil 383or402/3T.hehistoroyfChesterinthepost-Romacnenturieiss obscureA. battlewasfoughntearbyin616s,uggestintghatpeople stillfoundrefuge- ifnotpermanenhtabitatio-n intheearly seventhcenturyA. Danisharmyshelterewd ithintheoldwallsin 893.In 907/E8 thelrede,aldormanofMercia,andhiswifeEthelfleda,"LadyoftheMercians,"repairedtheRomanfortifications andincorporateCdheste-r whosemodernameisderivedfrom theLatincastra, camporfort- intothesystemof"burhs"or strongpoinatgsainsttheDanes." TheSaxonburhdidmuchto ensureRomaninfluencienthegrowthofChester(see Figure3). Sincetheburh'sgateswerethoseofthefortrests,heburh'smain streetns aturallypreservedthoseofRomantimes:BridgeStreet

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is theoldvia praetoria,NorthgatSetreethevia decumana,and Eastgateand(partof)WatergatSetreetspreservethevia principalis. EthelfledbauiltthechurchofSt.Peteratthejunctionof theburh'smainstreetso, nthesiteoftheRomanheadquarters buildingT.heNormancastleis outsidetheRomanbutinsidethe 13thcenturywalls,whichenclosedadditionatlerritortyo the westandsouthwhilekeepingtotheRomanlinealongtheeastand

northeast.12

YorkpreservesitsRomanoriginsas clearlyas doesChester. H. G.Rammhaspaintedthefollowinpgicturoefthetiesbetween Romanand modernYork:

In onesenseRomanYorkstillsurvivestoday.Thegreat west-anglbeastionofthefortresis a directphysicaslurvivaloftheRomanfabricofYork[no.8ontheplan,Figure4], buta morepowerfualndpervasiveinfluencies thatofthe townplan.Initsmajoroutlinetshisplanis stilltheRoman oneanditis possibletotraceitscontinuoudsevelopment fromA.D. 71tothepresentI.nundationisnthefifthand sixthcenturiescaused majoralterationsbutthemost drasticchangesare to be associatedwithtenth-century expansionand thedisastrouseventsof1069.13

Andina similarveinM.BiddlehasstressedthatYorkpresents thebestexampleofcontinuitoyfhabitatiofnromRomantimes onwardinBritain.1In4otherwordsY, orkwas- andis- Roman longaftertheendoftheRomanEmpire.

In A.D. 71 Q. PetiliusCerialis,governorofBritain,moved LegioIX HispananorthwarfdromLincolnF. oritsnewbase he selecteda well-draineadnd easilydefensiblleocationon high groundbetweentheOuseRiveranditstributartyheFosse.Ships couldbringinsuppliesuptheHumberandOuse,so thisfortress, likeitscontemporariaetsCaerleonontheUskandChesteronthe Dee, was reachableby watertransportT. he firstdefences, timber-laceedarthworkws,ererebuilitnstonein107/a8ndsoon thereafteLregioVI VictrixreplacedIX Hispana; therewere extensiverepairsabout200and anotherrebuildinga century

FEBRUARY 1983

17

later.Butthebasiclayoutofthefortresrsemainedunchanged andestablisheidtselfsofirmltyhatithasdeterminemd uchofthe basic shape of Yorkthroughthesucceedingcenturies.The

Romanciviltownbecamea colonyunderCaracalla(211-217b),ut declinedaftertheendofRomanrule,a casualtyofthegeneral chaosandrampantfloodingwhichsweptawaythebridgeconnectingthetwosidesoftheOuse.BytheSaxonandVikingperiods therewasonceagaina thrivintgownonthesiteofthecolony.15

Figure 4 shows the relationshipbetweenfortressand

medieval-modercinty:notethewallsandgates,thefamiliarT

intersectionofviae principalisetpraetoria (nowPetergate and Stonegate),and thepresenceofa church- in thiscase the Minste-r abovea partofthefortreshseadquartersH.owthese aspectsoftheRomanlegacyweretransmitteids wortha brief explanation.

Heavyandrepeatedfloodingin thefifthandsixthcenturies

probablydidmorethantheendofRomanmilitaryandpolitical

administratiotnobringaboutthedeclineofancientEburacum. Townlifeseemsnevertohavecompletelydiedout,andbythe

earlyeighthcenturytheplace had becometheSaxonportand marketofEoforwikorEoforwikceaste("rwik"/"vik,"v~illage, plus"ceaster,"camp,fromcastra). Thenucleusofthesettle-

mentw, hichspreadacrosstheOuse,wasthefortressa,pproximatelyin thecenterof whichwas a church;Yorkwas an archepiscopaslee. DanesoccupiedEoforwifkrom866/7c,hang-

ingits nameto Jorvik(whencethemodernformYork) and makingita greattradingpost.OnthreesidestheDanesmounded

earthovertheRomanwallsanderecteda stockadeontop,buton thefourthsidetheyextendedthefortressn' ortheasatndsouthwestwallsin theformofa stockadeor moundto theFosse, leavingthisendopenalongtheriverT. hisarea,as recentexcavationsintheCoppergataendPavementhaveshown,was the coreofthethrivinVgikingcityT. heDanishroyalpalaceseemsto havebeenintheRomanportaprincipalissinistra: itappearsas Koningsgarthina Egil's Saga, as Kuningsgarbdythe13thcen-

turya,ndis nowKing'sSquare.Prosperitcyontinueudnderthe kingsofWessex,whoexpelledtheDanes in 954.Williamthe Conquerobruilta castleattheconfluencoeftheriversb, uthehad a difficutlitmecontrollinYgorkshirea,ndYorksufferetderribly in thefightinogfhisreign.His harshmeasuresdo notseemto

haveaffectetdheRomanlegacyinYork.A newcathedralb, uilt

inthelate 11thcenturyprobablyjusttothesouthoftheSaxon church(damagedintherebellionof1068/9r,epairedd, estroyed in1079w) asas symboliocftheNormanruleas wasthecastle.The presentMinsterb,uiltbetweenthe1220sandlater1400ss,tands aboveitsNormanpredecessoarndoverthenorthwesptortionof the principiaas well.16

INCOLN(Figure5) seemsonpresenetvidencetohavebeen builtas thefortresosfLegioIXHispanaabout61-66t,hough an auxiliaryfortor storesdepotdownbytherivermayhave precededthearrivalofthelegionbysomeyears.Thesitewasthe

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