The Sturnidae Husbandry Manual and Resource Guide

The Sturnidae Husbandry Manual and Resource Guide

Greg Bockheim

Potawatomi Zoo &

Susan Congdon

Disney's Animal Kingdom

April 2001

1

A. Natural History 1. Taxonomy and Variation The family Sturnidae is well-represented in zoological collections worldwide. The 114-sturnid species make up 29 genera. Feare & Craig (1999) offers the most recent and complete proposals for classification, therefore the Sturnid Species Interest Group has adopted this system of classification until further critical studies have been carried out. Sturnid taxonomy has had many proposals regarding relations to other bird families. Traditionally Sturnidae was associated with Corvidae (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990), weavers (Von Boetticher 1931a) and African sugarbirds (Sibley and Ahlquist 1974), though DNA hybridization determined the family to be more closely related to thrushes (Turdidae) and Old World flycatchers (Muscicapidae).

Wide variation exists between many sturnid species, from the obvious range in color and body shape, to vocal capabilities and habitat preference. Limited captive and field research exists on many species. General and detailed species descriptions can be found in the Recommended Reading List found at the end of this manual.

Starlings are an Old World family except for introduced species, and occupy most habitat types. All members of the Sturnidae family tend to fall into one of two categories: Open terrain species that tend to have long wings and a short tail, and woodland or cliff species which tend to have short, rounded wings. Most starlings and mynahs have long strong bills and legs, are strong fliers, and are noisy and conspicuous. Many Asian species have evolved to live in treeless grassy areas. Only 2 African species, the African pied starling Spreo bicolor and the wattled starling creatophora cinerea, are found in this habitat type.

The amethyst starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster is the most widespread African species, with breeding populations in western, eastern, and southern Africa. Most species are omnivorous, though oxpeckers are specialized feeders consuming ticks, ectoparasites, blood and fluids of their large mammal hosts.

The plumage of African species tends to be glossy while that of Asian species tend to be dullcolored, with browns, grays, and blacks. Most species are cavity nesters and use hollows in trees, cliffs, riverbanks, or the nests of other species.

2. Conservation Information Five sturnid island forms have become extinct and seven species are globally threatened. Another twelve species are near-threatened. The critically endangered Bali mynah Leucopsar rothschildi is the only Sturnidae species with a conservation program in place.

The greatest threat to most wildlife, including members of the sturnid family, is loss, fragmentation, or degradation of habitat. The introduction of exotic or domestic predators, especially reptiles, rats, and cats, has also impacted avian species around the world. The European starling Sturnus vulgaris is a prime example of the catastrophic result of introducing an aggressive starling species and the potential impact on native bird species.

In parts of Africa and Asia some sturnid species are agricultural pests causing much damage to fruit plantations and cultivated areas. Various techniques are used to reduce the number of birds in these areas or to scare them from human habitation. Few of these techniques seem to be effective.

Some sturnid species, such as the wattled starling Creatophora cinerea, are valued in parts of Africa, as they consume vast quantities of locusts.

No species, with the exception of the superb starling Lamprotornis superbus and the Bali mynah Leucopsar rothschildi have actually reproduced frequently enough in captivity to keep up with the demands both in zoological institutions and in private aviculture. A large international pet demand still exists for the hill mynah Gracula religiosa. In Asia artificial nests are hung for

2

these birds and chicks collected at three weeks of age to be reared for the pet trade. Bali mynahs have suffered tremendously due to habitat loss and capture for the pet trade, as they are seen as a status symbol and are kept by many in cages throughout their native land (Craig and Feare 1999). The wild population of Bali mynah is presently less than 25 birds.

B. General Characteristics 1. Social behavior and structure While starling and mynah species differ in many ways, most species show similarities in social structure and behavior. Only two sturnid species, the brown-winged Aplonis grandis and Shelley's starling Lamprotornis shelleyi, are frequently reported to occur solitarily or in pairs. Most species display gregarious tendencies, at least in some situations (Feare & Craig 1996).

By flocking, sturnids perform what is described as "demonstrated opportunism." In such cases members of the same species flock together to feed at a particularly good food source, such as fruiting trees or when insect "blooms" occur. Many species will also flock together to roost. Several mynah species are frequently reported to roost in family units (Feare & Craig 1999). During these occasions of species gathering, associations are made that stimulate interspecific interaction, familial interconnectedness, and pair-bond formation. Most of these flocking species then pair for a short amount of time each year to breed.

Differences in locomotory behavior also exist. Those species considered more terrestrial, such as the genera Lamprotornis (the glossy starlings) and Creatophora (wattled starling), often feed

on the ground by walking and running about. Terrestrial feeding has brought with it the evolution of longer legs enabling these species to run quickly. The more arboreal and frugivorous genera Mino (yellow- faced mynah) and Gracula (Hill mynahs) have shorter legs and locomote by hopping. The

more terrestrial the species becomes, the more omnivorous their diet and the more adapted the beak to prying and probing for food, while the more arboreal species tend to bite or peck into food or swallow food items whole (Snow 1981).

Many African sturnids live in shared ranges that link-up with other species outside of the breeding season (Traylor 1971). Occasionally mixed species flocks will roost together, as often observed in the genera Acridotheres and Gracupica. Extended families of some species have been reported as cooperative in their breeding (Craig and Feare 1999). Eleven species of African starlings are believed to be cooperative breeders, including the emerald starling Lamprotornis iris, but this breeding strategy has only been clearly documented in the African pied and chestnutbellied starlings Lamprotornis pulcher. In these cases it is not known to what extent the extended family shares in nest building, chick rearing, or protection of territories.

3

2. Vocalization

Starlings are not great songsters, though most have distinctive flight calls and harsh alarm calls.

In the case of many mynah and starling species, their ability to mimic sounds has led them to be

kept as companions. The word mynah is actually derived from a Hindi word meaning a term of

endearment such as "pet".

The flight calls of many of the glossy starlings might be described as liquidy chirps or whistles.

Other species, especially the Bali mynah, superb starling), and the wattled starling, will often be

seen perched with wings fluttering, delivering the cacophony of song similar to that seen and

heard among flocks of common European starlings Sturnus vulgaris. Harsh alarm calls are very

similar between species and are mutually recognizable (Craig & Feare 1999). The males of some

sturnid species have been observed to sing with increased frequency as harsh weather conditions

improve and at the onset of the breeding season (Gibson 1994).

Occasionally musical whistling calls, most of which are finely tuned and very soft, will be

performed by some species. Recent research has shown evidence that the common European

starling continues to learn new song elements from the sounds in their environment (Bo hner

1990). The complexities of sturnid vocalizations continue to be a subject in need of further

research.

Table A. Does your sturnid pair dominate other bird species? (Quest. 2K.)

Common name

Species

Yes or No

# Pairs / tot. pairs

African pied starling

Spreo bicolor

No

2/2 pair

Amethyst starling

Cinnyricinclus leucogaster

No

7/7 pair

Asian glossy starling

Aplonis panayensis

No

1/1 pair

Asian pied mynah

Gracupica contra

Yes

1/1 pair

Bali mynah

Leucopsar rothschildi

Varies

27/47 pair

Black-collared mynah

Gracupica nigricollis

No

1/1 pair

Black-winged mynah

Acridotheres melanopterus

Yes

1/1 pair

Emerald starling

Lamprotornis iris

No

11/12 pair

Golden-breasted starling

Lamprotornis regius

No

17/24 pair

Golden-crested mynah

Ampeliceps coronatus

No

6/7 pair

Greater blue-eared starling Lamprotornis chalybaeus

No

2/2 pair

Grosbeak starling

Scissirostrum dubium

No

2/4 pair

Indian Hill mynah

Gracula religiosa

Varies

6/6 pair

Jungle mynah

Acridotheres fuscus

No

1/1 pair

Lesser blue-eared starling Lamprotornis chloropterus

No

2/2 pair

Long-tailed glossy

Lamprotornis mevesii

Yes

1/1 pair

Metallic starling

Aplonis metallica

Yes

1/2 pair

Purple glossy starling

Lamprotornis purpureus

No

3/6 pair

Red-winged starling

Onychognathus morio

No

1/1 pair

Sulawesi crested starling

Basiliornis celebensis

No

3/3 pair

Superb Starling

Lamprotornis superbus

Yes

18/24 pair

Vinous-breasted mynah Acridotheres burmannicus

No

2/2 pair

Wattled starling

Creatophora cinerea

No

2/3 pair

White-collared mynah

Acridotheres cristatellus

No

1/1 pair

White-necked mynah

Streptocitta albicollis

No

1/1 pair

Yellow-faced mynah

Mino dumontii

No

2/2 pair

3. Behavior and aggression Most starlings and mynahs are potentially aggressive toward smaller birds at all times of the year and will need to be monitored. Aggression among sturnid species ranges from scolding calls to displacement and to actual pursuit. Aggression becomes most serious as one bird, or flock,

4

begins chasing a single bird or another flock. Occurrences of intraspecific squabbling do arise among some sturnid species, especially during the breeding season. Squabbling can also suddenly break out, for no apparent reason, throughout the year but is most commonly seen at the onset of the breeding season, a change of seasons, or by pairs protecting their nesting territory. Territorial behavior in starlings is largely limited to defense of the nest site (Stokes 1979). Occasionally actual physical combat occurs with birds locking feet and tumbling to the ground pecking at each other.

Infrequent and sudden bouts of fighting have been observed to occur among flocks of goldenbreasted starlings, superb starlings, and other African glossy starlings. It is likely that this occurs among many, if not all, sturnid species when held within the largely unnatural confines of captivity. The incidence of squabbling among familial flocks of sturnids may be much reduced, perhaps due to their close association, as this has been the case among such a flock of goldencrested mynahs at Disney's Animal Kingdom (DAK) and has been reported among superb starlings. Further captive data will need to be collected to confirm this.

When flocks of sturnids are kept in large aviaries, interspecific squabbling and fighting is often seen dur ing the breeding season when birds intentionally or inadvertently enter the breeding territories of other birds. For example, superb starlings will often invade the nesting territories of other birds in an attempt to steal favorable nesting material or to take over the nest site entirely, a feat at which they are often successful. Grosbeak starlings Scissirostrum dubium can be very disruptive in a mixed species aviary as their natural curiosity drives them to investigate every vacant or occupied tree hollow, nest box, or potential nesting crevice.

Table B. If in a mixed species aviary, what social status do your sturnids appear to hold? Aggressors __ Submissive __ Instigators __ Oblivious of others__ Other ___ (Question 2L)

Common name

Scientific name

Behavior (# / of total pairs)

Amethyst starling

Cinnyricinclus leucogaster

Submissive or Oblivious (9/9)

Asian pied starling

Gracupica contra

Oblivious (2/2)

Bali mynah

Leucopsar rothschildi

Aggressive (6/17) / Oblivious (16/17)

Black-collared starling

Gracupica nigricollis

Aggressive at nest site (2/2)

Black-winged mynah

Acridotheres melanopterus

Aggressive at nest site (1/1)

Emerald starling

Lamprotornis iris

Submissive or Oblivious (8/12)

Golden-breasted starling

Lamprotornis regius

Oblivious (14/17) / Aggressive (4/17)

Golden-crested mynah

Ampeliceps coronatus

Oblivious or Submissive (7/7)

Greater blue-eared starling Lamprotornis chalybaeus

Aggressive (3/3)

Grosbeak starling

Scissirostrum dubium

Instigator or Dominate (4/4)

Indian hill mynah

Gracula religiosa

Entire range (6/6)

Long-tailed glossy starling

Lamprotornis mevesii

Oblivious (1/1)

Purple glossy starling

Lamprotornis purpureus

Entire range (6/6)

Sulawesi crested starling

Basiliornis celebensis

Oblivious / Instigator (3/3)

Superb starling

Lamprotornis superbus

Aggressive or Instigators (18 / 24)

Vinous-breasted mynah

Acridotheres burmannicus

Submissive (2/2)

Wattled starling

Creatophora cinerea

Dominant at feeding stations (2/4)

White-collared mynah

Grafisia torquata

Instigators (1/1)

Sturnids by nature are very curious and may become interested in the newly fledged offspring of other aviary inhabitants. This curiosity also includes the investigation of newly introduced bird species, both perching and ground dwelling. Care must therefore be taken when new birds are brought into any mixed aviary, and frequent observations are necessary during and after introductions so that prompt measures can be taken should aggression or distress occur. In many

5

 ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download