Chapter 18 Study Questions, America’s “Happy Days”, 1946 …
Chapter 18 Study Questions, America’s “Happy Days”, 1946-1960
1. Soviet espionage was a serious threat for America. ATVOTS. 632
2. WWII did not end with the surrender of Germany and Japan in 1945. ATVOTS. 632-33
3. Truman’s assessment of Stalin changed over time. ATVOTS. 633
4. Summarize the ways Communism and fascism are the same in key elements. 634
5. Summarize the opinions of FDR, Churchill, and Truman on Communist USSR and evaluate whose opinion was most appropriate. 634-35
6. Truman was no Chamberlain. Evaluate this statement in relation to USSR in Iran. 636
7. FDR’s administration was infiltrated by communists at high levels. ATVOTS 636
8. Evaluate the Progressive Candidate and former FDR Vice President Henry Wallace. 636-37
9. Summarize the Truman Doctrine and assess its appropriateness and effectiveness. 637-38
10. Summarize the Marshall Plan and assess its appropriateness and effectiveness. 638
11. Summarize the US strategy of containment introduced by George Kennan and assess its appropriateness and effectiveness. 638
12. Summarize NATO and assess its appropriateness and effectiveness. 638-39
13. Explain the Berlin crisis and assess Truman’s response to it. 640
14. How were Jazz musicians used in the Cold War. 640-41
15. The US had no hope of affecting the outcome of the Chinese “civil war” between communist Mao Tse Tung and Nationalist Chiang Kai Shek. ATVOTS made by Sec. of State Dean Acheson. 641-642
16. Assess the appropriateness and result of Acheson’s speech that implied that Korea was no longer considered within the US containment fence. 642
17. What was Stalin’s play and actions in Korea. 642
18. Evaluate the actions of MacArthur in the Korean War and Truman’ decision to fire him. 643
19. McCarthy’s investigations underestimated the number of active Soviets agents in America. ATVOTS
645-46
20. Labeling the time period after WWII into the 1950’s as the Red Scare, or hysteria, is a gross exaggeration. ATVOTS 646-47
21. Summarize the purpose of the Checkers speech of Nixon. 648
22. Truman was an ally of big government forces. ATVOTS in relation to his FAIR DEAL. 649
23. Summarize the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. 649
24. Summarize the Dynamic Conservatism of Eisenhower. 649-650
25. Summarize and assess the plans and policies of Bernard Baruch and SANE in relation to Atomic Bombs. 650
26. Summarize RAND and MAD. 651
27. Summarize the Cold War in space. 652-53
28. The Happy Days of the 1950’s were not happy. ATVOTS 653-54
29. Summarize the Baby Boomers and their culture. 654-55
30. Assess the child rearing beliefs of Dr. Spock and its effects on the next generation. 655
31. Summarize Levittown’s. 656
32. Summarize the National Highway Act of Eisenhower and Congress and assess its positive and negative aspects. 656-57
33. Summarize the importance of Norman Rockwell. 659-60
34. Summarize the significance of Kemmons Wilson and Ray Croc. 660-61
35. Ralph Wilson accurately captured in his book, The Invisible Man, that to most white Americans, blacks did not exist. ATVOTS 661-63
36. Summarize the significance of Thurgood Marshall. 662
37. Summarize the crisis at Central High School and the decision of Eisenhower. 663-64
38. Summarize and assess the actions of MLK. 664
39. Evaluate the comments of African American economist Walter Williams on “forced association laws”.
665
40. Summarize the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the literacy test and poll tax in the 1950’s. 665
41. The decade of the 1950’s masked what was to come in the 1960’s. ATVOTS 666
Unit 18 – “Americas Happy Days”, 1946-1960
I. What did America fear after WWII?
A. America feared a return to the Depression for a variety of reasons.
- The GNP (Gross National Product) of America was again decreasing. The GNP measures economic activity.
- Prices after the war began to rise and inflation became a problem. Some prices rose as much 33% after the war as the Office of Price Administration lifted is regulations on the costs of goods. The debt of America as a result of the New Deal and WWII was also at highest level in history up to that point in history.
- Strikes after the war were on the increase with a many as 4.6 million workers going on strike. Workers were demanding increases in wages to keep up with inflation which would cause prices to raise more and lead America back into another Depression.
- A return to high unemployment figures were feared as GI’s (soldiers) from WWII returned home looking for work after their military service which could overburden the economy and lead America back into another Depression.
B. America also feared the growth of Communism internationally and domestically for a variety of reasons
which will be discussed in great depth later.
II. What policies were created to help curtail a return to the Great Depression after WWII?
A. The Taft-Hartley Act was created in 1946 which did the following:
- A closed shop forced workers to join a union and the Taft Hartley Act forbid such. The Taft
Hartley Act went further by allowing States to pass right to work laws that prevented the closed
shop for public employees. (nicknamed the freedom to work act)
- The Act made unions pay for damages and losses resulting from strikes and boycotts.
- The Act made all workers take an oath that they were not communists.
B. The Employment Act was created stating it is part of the Federal Governments job to promote maximum employment for Americans.
C. The GI Bill was created to help soldiers ease back into civilian life and it provided the following for GI’s.
- It provided free education for GI’s. 6 million GI’s went to college for free and 2 million went to vocational schools.
- It also provided cheap housing loans for GI’s through the Veterans Administration.
D. In midterm elections of 1946 the Republicans achieve a majority in both the House of
Representatives and the Senate for 1st time since 1920’s and along with the Taft-Hartley they do the following: “Handout era is over, and the can do attitude of WWII remain in place.”
- reduce taxes by $5 billion and exempt (no taxes) for many low income families
- balance the federal budget for 1st time since Great Depression
- stop national health care plan with emphasis on free markets
III. What put to rest fears of returning to the Great Depression?
A. An economic boom occurred not long after the war resulting in a rise in the GNP. Americans were experiencing an increase in their income through higher wages and consequently they were spending more money as a consumer which helped the US economy grow.
B. Many other factors contributed to the economic boom especially energy and the military.
- The development of electricity and its many uses helped grow the economy. Energy as a whole was cheap and becoming cheaper whether it was electricity, oil, or gas. Many new products using cheap sources of energy were created that were affordable to many American families which again helped to grow the economy.
- The tremendous increase in military expenditures by the Federal Government also helped to grow the economy. Many jobs were created as business’ dealing with weapons were begun or expanded. The emphasis on air power and nuclear power led to huge military expenses. A great amount of money was also spent on military research. The RAND Corporation created “think tanks” to come up with new military ideas.
C. By the end of the 1950’s the American economy was strong and the numbers of those entering the middle class was rising.
IV. What were the population trends post WWII?
A. The population of America after the 1950 census was at 140 million which was about 6% of the world’s population.
B. As GI’s returned home many of them got married and started having children. Approx. 50 million newborn babies were delivered by the end of the 1950’s. Babies born between 1945 and 1963 were called the “Baby Boomers” generation which dramatically impacted the economy.
C. The population of America began to show various shifts and trends.
- A shift in population from the Northeast to Southwest and Southeast. It was nicknamed a shift from the Frostbelt or Rustbelt of the NE to the Sunbelt of the SE and SW. The Sunbelt was called the smiling crescent ranging from California to Virginia.
- A shift in population from the city to the suburbs also took place. 1/3 of the US population was living in suburbs. The creation of highways, and subways encouraged the movement to the burbs. Many subdivisions were built to house those moving to the burbs. One of the first mass housing subdivision was Levittown in New York. Many of the house designs in these new subdivisions were the same or had a minor variant to the house. The term tract housing was used to describe such housing.
- A shift in the black population also occurred. Many blacks were migrating to major cities. As blacks moved the city whites began moving to the suburbs. This phenomenon was called white flight. Race riots resulted in major American cities as blacks moved to these urban areas.
- Americans were moving more from place to place. Relatives were less likely to live in the same general area as families were spread out across the country as various job opportunities came up. This is a significant change in the make up of America.
V. What were the cultural trends and changes in America after WWII?
A. Television dramatically changed culture in America. Popular TV shows like Ozzie and Harriet, Leave It To Beaver, I Love Lucy, Ed Sullivan Show and many more were watched regularly.
B. Movies continued to play a huge role in American culture. Actors such as James Dean and actresses like Marilyn Monroe.
C. Musicians also changed America. Musicians like Elvis played the new music of rock – n – roll.
D. Fast Food restaurants started to pop up around America. McDonald’s being one of the first mass fast food chains.
E. The greater availability of credit cards led to huge increase in debt purchases.
F. Air travel was starting to become more commonplace on Boeing 707’s.
G. Parents started to consider alternate views on raising their children. Dr. Spock wrote a book called, Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. In the book he offered alternative ways of punishing children for bad behavior. He did not support spanking or any form of corporal punishment but instead supported punishments such as “time outs”.
H. A few of the many cultural trends and fads were: Poodle dresses, leather jackets, Hula Hoops, the 57
Chevy, and many more.
I. Many writers critical of American culture became prominent after WWII. These writers discussed the
phoniness and conformity they saw in American society. Writers and their books are below:
- W. Whyte, Organizational Man - S. Wilson, Man in a Gray Flannel Suit
- D. Reisman, Lonely Crowd - Salinger, Cather in the Rye
- Arthur Miller, Crucible and Death of a Salesman
Other writers also critical of the American culture became prominent and they focused on how to break from the “NORM”. These writers were significant in relation to the decade of the 1960’s and
they are below: (some of theses writers were nicknamed Beatniks)
- J. Kerouac, On the Road
- A. Ginsburg, the Howling
- Betty Friedan, Feminine Mystique where she stated women needed to be independent and that life as a house wife is a boring and unfulfilling life.
J. Duck and Cover Drills were instituted in pubic schools in case of nuclear attack by USSR and bomb
shelters became commonplace in homes across America.
VI. What was the COLD WAR and how was it manifested domestically and internationally with America?
A. The Cold War was an undeclared war with the Soviet Union (USSR). It was largely a war of espionage. America and USSR were the most powerful countries of the world after WWII and were constantly trying to stay one step ahead of each other.
B. Was Communism a real threat to American national security?
- the magazine , Amerasia, was passing highly classified documents to Russia (the Soviets)
through an elaborate espionage ring of spies within the US according to the FBI. Occurrences
such as this bring up the question: Was FDR soft on communists?
- WWII did not end with surrender of Germany and Japan but continue to the 1990’s until the
Soviet Union (Russian communism) and their tyranny in the world fell apart. ATVOTS.
C. What were differences between America and the Soviet Union?
- the political ideology of Communism like Russia: equality over freedom, government control
with emphasis on the common good of the country
- the political ideology of a Republic like America: freedom over equality, individual liberties
with emphasis on constraining the government
D. What were similarities between America and the Soviet Union?
- both fostered an expansion of their ideology to dominate and control the world
- both fostered and established spheres of influence in the world. USSR established a supportive
bloc of eastern European countries through force and America established a supportive bloc of
western European countries through aid. Also, both USSR and America sought to influence 3rd
world countries.
E. What pre-post WWII issues between America and USSR contributed to the Cold War?
- the failed Archangel expedition to remove the communist Bolsheviks (Lenin) by USA (Wilson)
in 1919.
- the delayed recognition of USSR as a communist nation until 1933 (FDR)
- the agreement of Hitler (Germany) and Stalin (USSR) to invade Poland with USSR getting east
Poland and Germany getting west Poland. The continued defacto alliance between USSR and
Germany to not invade one another (Non Aggression Pact) prior to Hitler breaking the
agreement in 1940.
- the numerous accounts of USSR killing its own people in Stalin’s 5 year purges. Millions of
Russians were killed by their own government.
- the belated aid given to USSR in the Lend Lease policy and the belated 2nd front opened up on
Germany to relieve the pressure on USSR.
- the presence of Russian spies in America
- the use of the atomic bomb to defeat Japan and end WWII
F. The Cold War manifested itself in an array of domestic events and issues.
G. The Cold War manifested itself in an array of international events and issues.
VII. What is the UNITED NATIONS and how was it created?
A. At the Bretton Woods Conference in New Hampshire the allies met in 1944 to discuss the
establishment of an United Nations and a world currency and exchange rate and a world bank.
B. At the Yalta Conference in 1945 (FDR, Churchill, and Stalin) agreement was reached to establish an
United Nations.
C. At the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in San Francisco world leaders draft proposal for an United
Nations.
D. The United Nations was established in 1945 replacing the League of Nations and the Congress of
America passed it on 1st attempt.
E. Details of the United Nations:
- Security Council = USA, Britain, France, USSR, and China. Each country with veto power.
- General Assembly = all countries with one vote
- Secretary General = leader of the UN
- Goal to establish WORLD PEACE
-
F. Early decisions of the UN:
- Baruch Plan = UN agency to inspect nuclear facilities and stop production of nuclear weapons but USSR vetoes the plan
- Creation of a JEWISH nation called Israel in the Middle East in 1948. President Truman first to officially recognize Israel as an independent nation.
- Observance of Nuremberg Trials (prosecutions of war crimes committed during WWII)
-
G. US positions of UN
- critics = US will lose sovereignty and UN will not stop aggressive countries like USSR
- proponents = US will help attain world peace and UN will stop aggressive countries like USSR
VIII. What was US foreign policy after WWII under the leadership of President Truman in relation to the
spread and threat of USSR (communism)?
A. President Truman recognized dangers of an expanding USSR but still said about Stalin, “He is a fine
man who wanted to do the right thing. He is an honest man who is easy to get along with and who arrives at sound decisions.” Were these comments by Truman about Stalin appropriate when considering he killed more people than Hitler and considering he started at the Battle of Stalingrad thinking of how to combat future enemies of Britain and America after WWII? This fine and honest man was seeking to build an atomic bomb.
B. the IRON CURTAIN speech by former Prime Minister of Britain, Churchill, began to change the
perspectives of many Americans towards USSR. Churchill speaking at Westminster College in America concluded that USSR was putting up an “IRON CURTAIN” in Eastern Europe where USSR was establishing a bloc (sphere) of communist control through force. Churchill went on to warn that the USSR “curtain” would continue to grow unless held in check by the west (Britain, France, USA, and others). Truman initially not endorse Churchill and called USSR friends giving USSR a chance to rebuttal the speech but Truman started to change signified in his quote, “I am tired of babying the Soviets.” Churchill earlier tried to warn FDR and his advisors of the USSR threat and Stalin’s intentions but to no avail. Some advisors of FDR like Tugwell, Wallace, and others saw USSR as an example of what America should model.
C. In the Potsdam Conference (Stalin, Truman, and Atlee of Britain) agreed Germany would be divided
up into 4 occupied zones. Britain, France, and America combined their zones into one and gave Germany autonomy over the land while USSR kept their zone making it communist. Germany became divided into West Germany (free) and East Germany (communist). The capital city of Berlin in East Germany was divided in half (half free and half communist).
D. Numerous countries after WWII controlled by USSR: Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland.
USSR looking more and more like fascist Germany of WWII. Communist government of USSR had
total control of their economy, community, and information as well the countries they conquered.
USSR agreed to allow free elections in Poland and Eastern Europe in the Yalta Conference but
reneged on this Yalta promise. USSR like fascist Germany had a national identity with a single
characteristic with all power relegated to an ambitious, dangerous dictator (Hitler, Stalin). Germany
focused on one race and USSR focused on one class. Both obsessed over the existence of enemies
trying to stop their race or class utopias.
E. George Kenan, secretary of state assistant, concluded the threat of USSR was real and wrote the
CONTAINMENT DOCTRINE anonymously as Mr. X to convey such. He stated that containment of USSR must be achieved and no further growth of communist USSR should be allowed (like a fence). He went on to conclude that communist USSR would die if it could not expand. A communist coup take over in Czechoslovakia and the near collapse of Greece to communist guerilla soldiers led Kenan to his conclusions.
F. Truman also was watching Greece anxiously. Truman realized Americans did not want another war
but at same time realized he did not want to encourage another Hitler. Truman also cognizant the US was not capable of pushing USSR out of their occupied territories so another course of action was needed other than warfare. Truman, Kenan, Marshall (Sec. of State), Acheson (Sec. of Defense) and Congress authorized the TRUMAN DOCTRINE in Feb. 1947. The DOCTRINE would allow America to support free peoples who are resisting attempted overthrow by outside forces like communism. The DOCTRINE has been considered to be the starting point of the Cold War and was indicative of US Cold War strategy. Financial aid through the DOCTRINE was first given to Greece and Turkey totaling approx. $400 million dollars to prevent the east Mediterranean Sea to fall to USSR. Truman alluded to such action in his fourth point of his Inaugural Address when he said he would lend $money$ to any 3rd world country to stop the spread of communism in Latin America, Africa, Middle East, or Far East.
G. In June 1947 Truman and Congress created the MARSHALL PLAN. The PLAN allowed America to
give approx. $12.5 billion dollars over 4 years to countries in Western Europe to stop the spread of communist USSR.
H. In 1947 USSR sent troops to the oil rich country of Iran. USSR would not withdraw and Truman
realized this conflict in Iran may lead to another world war. Truman pressed the Iran conflict at the United Nations Security Council and USSR realized they could not pull off a Munich Conference like result and so they pulled out of Iran to avoid further conflict and likely world war.
I. Truman along with Congress created the NATIONAL SECURTITIES ACT. The ACT created the
following: the Army and Navy were now both to be a part of the Department of Defense, the Pentagon was begun, the CIA was created, and the Joints Chiefs of Staff was created as well. Lastly the Draft was maintained.
J. Truman and Congress also authorized organizations to resist communism. VOICE of America was
created which sent radio broadcasts overseas to promote resistance to communism. CARE (Cooperative for American Remittance to Europe) allowed private US citizens to send food and clothing to areas in Europe to help resist communism.
K. The CONTAINMENT DOCTRINE thwarted USSR in many instances. The second way to continue
to thwart and stop USSR expansion was the establishment of ALLIANCES. The process of making ALLIANCES was begun in 1947/1948 and the following ALLIANCES later resulted:
• NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization established April 1949 making an
alliance of 12 western nations to prevent further USSR expansion. Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Lux, Norway, Italy, Canada, US, and others agreed that an armed attack on one was an armed attack on all and use of atomic bomb was plausible. Truman ordered 4 Army Divisions to Europe with consent of Congress.
• ANZUS = Australia, New Zealand, US alliance in 1951 as USSR was a growing threat in the Pacific.
• SEATO = Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954 under President Eisenhower
as USSR was a growing threat in the areas like Vietnam.
• CENTO = Central East Asia Treaty Organization in 1955 under President
Eisenhower as USSR was already a threat in areas like Iran.
• OAS = Organization of Latin American States.
L. USSR countered NATO and established WARSAW which was an alliance of eastern bloc communist countries. Leftists in America portrayed USSR as an innocent victim and NATO as the villain. The WARSAW Pact proves otherwise as USSR had made plans to invade Western Europe and USSR spies in US revealed to USSR that the US could not respond quick enough to stop a USSR invasion of Western Europe.
M. Further evidence supporting the claim USSR had plans to initiate conflict in Western Europe was when USSR tried to eliminate the potential threat of West Berlin by cutting it off from West Germany to remove US presence. Berlin the capital of Germany was in communist controlled East Germany and was split in half after WWII with West Berlin being free and part of West Germany while East Berlin was part of East Germany and controlled by USSR communism.
N. Truman in the midst of re-election in 1948 when the BERLIN CRISIS erupted defeated Democrat turned Dixiecrat segregationist Strom Thurmond, Progressive far left Wallace, and conciliatory Republican Dewey. A rally behind the incumbent Truman put him in office for 4 more years despite newspapers printing Dewey had won. Truman would not fire the first shot in the BERLIN CRISIS and refused to give up West Berlin to USSR. Truman deployed 3 squadrons of B-29 bombers in an AIRLIFT dropping 7000 tons of supplies (water and food) into West Berlin from Dec. 1948 to the spring of 1949. USSR (Stalin) concluded they could not order any planes to be shot down because of the risk of starting a world war against them and so they removed the blockade of West Berlin in May 1949. US and NATO as a result of the BERLIN CRISIS gained public support to increase their military to match that of the USSR military. This was an unintended negative consequence for USSR. Truman in spite of himself managed to win an early victory in the COLD WAR.
O. Another troubling area for America and Truman was Yugoslavia. Joseph Tito took control of Yugoslavia and created a form of communism.
P. Another troubling area for America and Truman was China. Mao Tse Tung, a communist, defeated Chiang Kai Shek and the Democratic friendly Kuomintang Chinese Nationalists in 1949. The US State Department was tilted toward Mao, the peasant fighter, and saw Shek as the villain. Sec. of State Acheson said US had no hope of resolving what he called a Civil War in China and Truman gave little aid. China fell to communism. Truman was later criticized for not doing more to stop Communist takeover of China by Mao Tse Tung who proved to be a brutal dictator killing thousands upon thousands of Chinese. Shek fled to Formosa (now Taiwan) to set up a republic government.
Q. Another major concern was when USSR created its own ATOMIC BOMB in 1949. Truman and Congress created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) which would regulate atomic weapons in US. It also recommended international regulations. In 1952 America created the Hydrogen Bomb which was much more powerful than the Atomic Bomb. In 1953 USSR created a Hydrogen Bomb. By 1950 America had approx. 100 Atomic Bombs and 200 necessary aircraft with refueling capabilities to drop them on USSR. US still held an atomic edge over USSR although the gap was closing.
R. Perhaps the biggest Cold War problem for America and Truman was KOREA. Sec. of State Acheson gave an unfortunate speech stating that Korea was outside of the US CONTAINMENT DOCTRINE. Kim II Sung, a communist in North Korea, attacked Syngman Rhee, leader of South Korea Republic on June 25, 1950. After the surrender of Japan in WWII USSR was allocated temporary control of North Korea and USA was allocated temporary control of South Korea. The dividing line was the 38th PARALLEL. USSR and USA both promised to unify Korea but when both left in 1949 rival leaders Sung and Rhee where in control and the situation was likened to that of west and east Germany. Sung of North Korea crossed the 38th parallel and invaded Rhee of South Korea with USSR made tanks but USSR stated they did take part in the invasion. USSR was also trying to use the Korean conflict to foster problems between China and America. North Korea pushed South Korea to a tiny defensive position at Pusan. Truman was not willing to back down on Korea especially since what recently happened in China but did not want WWIII to erupt.
S. Truman after USSR boycotted the Security Council gained United Nation approval to apply joint United Nation effort to repel the North Korean invasion although the US carried the load militarily and financially. No declaration of war was given by US Congress as Truman sent US General MacArthur to repel the invasion. MacArthur made a daring successful amphibious invasion behind enemy lines at Inchon and pushed back North Korean forces to the 38th Parallel. MacArthur proceeded north past 38th Parallel but was given specific orders by Sec. of Defense Marshall to only proceed if unhampered. MacArthur and Acheson assured Truman that China would not attack despite the warnings China gave to America to not come close to the Yalu River border. MacArthur proceeded and China crossed the Yalu River and pushed America back to the 38th Parallel killing hundreds of Americans.
T. MacArthur publicly criticized Truman and urged Formosa (Shek) to prepare for war. MacArthur
criticized Truman for fighting a limited war and called for massive blockade and bombing of China. He even suggested using 20 nuclear bombs on China. Truman warned MacArthur to stop his plans and his public criticisms but he continued to secretly plan disobeying and disrespecting the Commander and Chief President Truman. Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination despite MacArthur’s popularity and upheld the US Constitution as Generals must follow orders of the Commander and Chief.
U. A cease fire in Korea was reached in 1953 without a treaty and the 38th Parallel was re-established
as the dividing line between North Korea and South Korea and the parallel was labeled the demilitarized zone (DMZ). The threat of war exists in Korea to present day. Communism was contained with the cost of approx. 54,000 Americans killed in the Korean “War”. It was a war that America couldn’t afford to win, lose, or quit. Newly elected Republican President Eisenhower fulfilled his campaign to end the Korean War. The Korean War was used to justify a huge expansion of the military. In order #68 of the National Security Council (NSC # 68) the military expenditures quadrupled.
IX. What was US domestic policy after WWII under the leadership of President Truman in relation to the
spread and threat of communism (USSR)?
A. USSR communist spies had been active in America for decades. Robert Oppenheimer, the leader of the Manhattan Project to create the Atomic Bomb, may have been a communist. The House of Un-American Activities (HUAC) was created in 1938 to address this problem. It was led by J. Parnell Thomas. American spies had also been active in countries around the world.
B. Truman and Congress authorized the LOYALTY PROGRAM in 1947. The purpose of it was to
review and evaluate 3 million federal government employees. The Attorney General identified 90 organizations that were disloyal to America.
C. HUAC was used in 1948 to convict Alger Hiss of spying. Hiss was a US aid at the Yalta Conference
who was accused of giving US secret documents to Whitaker Chambers who was a member of the Communist Party in America. Chambers then passed them on to USSR. Richard Nixon, a leader of HUAC, helped convict Hiss of perjury.
D. The Smith Alien Sedition Act of 1940 from WWII was used in 1949 to convict 11 communists in
New York for supporting the overthrow of the US Government. The Supreme Court upheld the conviction in the Dennis v. US case of 1951.
E. The McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 was authorized by Congress despite Truman’s veto.
The Act allowed America to arrest and detain “suspicious” persons in times of internal security emergencies. The HOLLYWOOD 10 which were a group of actors and film producers were accused of being Communist spies. They refused to testify by pleading the 5th Amendment. The careers of the HOLLYWOOD 10 and many other “identified” communists were ruined.
F. In 1950 Wisconsin Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy stated that there were thousands of
communists in the Federal Government. McCarthy accused before having evidence which served to obscure the genuine damage already done to US security by communist spies in America. McCarthy helped start a panic that led to the 2nd RED SCARE in America. It was labeled McCarthyism. American liberties were repressed and many lived in terror as the search for communists in America continued by McCarthy. McCarthy misrepresented facts and accused without evidence but USSR KGB archives show that McCarthy actually underestimated the USSR spies in America. McCarthyism ended after McCarthy accused General Marshall and members of the US Army for being communists. McCarthy was censured (silenced) by Congress in 1959.
G. Entertainment impacted the Cold War whether it be movies, books, or music. Movies like Invasion
of the Body Snatchers contributed to the hysteria of McCarthyism. Arthur Miller on the other hand
tried to reveal the absurdities of McCarthyism in his book, the Crucible, which was about the
colonial Salem Witch Trials. The popularity of Jazz and musicians like Louie Armstrong and Benny
Goodwin was found to be a way to combat communism in the world beyond that of politicians and
diplomats. People in communist countries sought after things they could not get in their repressive
country. USSR tried to portray America as repressive and sighted the segregated treatment of blacks
in America as hypocritical and repressive. Paul Robeson, a black Jazz musician, visited USSR and
commented on how well everyone was treated which did not do much for his career.
H. In 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted for high treason for selling atomic bomb
secrets to USSR. They were executed in 1953. Membership in the Communist Party in America declined.
I. Congress and Truman authorized the McCarran-Walter Immigration Act in 1952. The Act forbid
anyone associated with communism, fascism, or totalitarianism from immigrating to the US.
J. Truman decided to not run for another term in 1952. Truman did not slow the New Deal and in fact
continued excessive growth of the Federal Government. His domestic program was called the FAIR DEAL. He increased minimum wage. He increased the number eligible for Social Security by 10 million. He created subsidies for federal housing projects for the poor, and increased farm subsidy programs. He began to address the Civil Rights movement which will be discussed in depth in next unit. He was famous for making various quotes while President, “The buck stops here.” “If you can’t stand the heat then get out of the kitchen.”
X. What was the US domestic policy after WWII under the leadership of President Eisenhower in relation to
the spread and threat of communism (USSR)?
A. Dwight D. Eisenhower (IKE), the former WWII General, ran for President as Republican and easily defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1952 and again in 1956. In both terms he had to deal with issues of domestic communism and McCarthyism.
B. IKE chose Nixon, a Senator from California, to be his Vice President. Nixon a former HUAC committee member helped IKE win the election. Before the election however Nixon was accused for using campaign money inappropriately for personal use. IKE almost dropped him as his VP but Nixon gave a speech on national television detailing he only used some of the money to buy his daughters a dog called Checkers. The speech became known as the “Checkers Speech” and the American public believed him.
C. IKE called his domestic policy DYNAMIC CONSERVATISM. He did not end the policies of the New Deal and allowed the federal government to continue to grow but at a slower rate. He increased minimum wage and increased the numbers eligible on Social Security. He balanced 3 out 8 yearly budgets. He was a popular President who sought to improve the nation and he was largely a bipartisan moderate President who delegated well. He created new government agencies in health, education, and welfare.
D. IKE and Congress authorized the INTERSTATE HIGHWAY ACT of 1955. The Act was the largest government works project in US History and it created approx. 41,000 miles of expressways across America. The act enhanced transportation and defense. IKE also supported the St. Lawrence Seaway Project of 1959 which connected the St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakes bringing about increased business trade in the region. Also, in 1959 Alaska and Hawaii became states of America.
E. IKE and Congress authorized OPERATION WETBACK. The law returned illegal Hispanic migrant
workers to Mexico. They also tried to remove Indian tribes but this law failed to pass.
F. IKE instituted the DUCK and COVER DRILLS in all schools in America in case of Atomic Bomb
attack by USSR and did not discourage the building of bomb shelters in homes. He promoted
passing of the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) after the success of the USSR satellite
Sputnik. Millions of money was given to education to increase sciences and math to help combat
communism in the present and future. Millions of dollars was also allocated for National Aeronautics
Space Administration (NASA) to help combat communism in the present and future. The SPACE
RACE between US and USSR had begun. Astronaut Shepard 1st American in space and Astronaut
Glenn 1st American in orbit and USSR had its firsts as well. Both NASA and NDEA enacted in 1958.
G. IKE increased military expenditures significantly in his terms as President. He promoted Research
and Development (RAND) which was a civilian think tank to discuss nuclear weapons and the
possibility of mutually assured destruction (MAD) of US and USSR. However, in his farewell
address he warned against a “military industrial complex”. He was worried the US economy would become overly dependent on military expenditures.
H. IKE and Congress created the Landrum Griffin Act in 1959. The Act stopped unions from bullying
workers into joining unions and also forced unions to report all money received.
I. IKE slow to address the Civil Rights movement of the 1950’s which will be discussed in depth in
next unit.
J. US domestically was worried about communism (USSR) but America was growing and prospering in
the 1950’s under TRUMAN and IKE.
XI. What was the US foreign policy after WWII under the leadership of President Eisenhower in relation to
the spread and threat of communism (USSR)?
A. As promised IKE ended the Korean War and the 38th Parallel was restored at the DMZ border
between North and South Korea.
B. IKE appointed John Dulles as his Secretary of State. Dulles believed the CONTAINMENT
DOCTRINE was too passive so he promoted a stronger policy to push back communism and it became known as BRINKANMANSHIP. If USSR expanded in future then US could massively retaliate with nuclear weapons. Dulles also recommended pre-emptive strike which was a policy of attacking USSR before they expanded anywhere else in the world or threatened US interests in the world. The point was to indicate to USSR that US would not be bullied. IKE took a more flexible approach than Dulles promoted. US Strategic Air Command (SAC) had the capability through a US bomber fleet to use nuclear weapons on USSR. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM’s) could also deliver a nuclear weapon on USSR across continents in 30 missiles. USSR would have ICBM’s by 1957. IKE also offered US made nuclear missiles to be placed in NATO alliance countries like Turkey, Britain, and Italy.
C. IKE also promoted using the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and wanted to seek peaceful ways
to use nuclear power. He also wanted to control the spread of nuclear weapons. The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission was formulated and Baruch was appointed as the US delegate. Baruch wanted US to hand over all atomic secrets to the United Nations on condition the US and USSR agreed to inspections. He also wanted US to agree to destroy all nuclear weapons but Senate did not pass UNAEC initiative of Baruch. The National Committee for Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE) was established in US as well as Atoms for Peace. Both SANE and Atoms for Peace emphasized human communities and tried to ban testing of Hydrogen Bombs. With all this said National Securities Council order #30 (NSC #30) kept open the option for US to use nuclear weapons if need be to prevent Europe from falling to communism (USSR).
D. In 1953 the Shah of Iran was displaced by a pro communist government. IKE sent in the CIA to restore the Shah of Iran to power. The Shah was pro American but the action to restore him hurt US and Middle East relations. In 1979 Iran attacked the US Embassy and removed the Shah of Iran.
E. In 1954 in Guatemala IKE sent in the CIA to remove the possibility of a communist regime from
coming to power in the region.
F. At a 2nd Geneva Summit in 1955 IKE and Stalin’s successor Nikita Khrushev met to discuss reducing tensions and to seek peaceful co-existence in world. Reductions of nuclear weapons were discussed but rejected by USSR. At least the two COLD WAR powers were discussing matters.
G. In 1956 the Hungarian people overthrew the communist government and withdrew from WARSAW.
Hungary asked for US aid and support but US aid was sent. USSR sent in tanks and troops and successfully squashed the rebellion and re-established communism in Hungary.
H. In 1956 the Egyptian President Gamal Nassar accepted money $ from USSR and seized control of
the British controlled Suez canal. Britain and Israel threatened to attack Egypt until the US and UN
intervened. Nassar became a Muslim hero for standing up to western rule and became an ally of
USSR. IKE created the EISENHOWER DOCTRINE which gave US financial and military aid to
any country resisting communism in the Middle East. The Doctrine was successfully used to keep
Lebannon in 1958 from falling to the communist threats of USSR and Egypt.
I. China tried to take over the Formosa (Taiwan) islands of Quemoy and Matsu. IKE successfully used
diplomacy to stop Chinese take over of the Taiwanese islands.
J. Cold War tensions escalated after USSR in 1957 launched the 1st satellite into space and then
successfully launched a 2nd a month later carrying a dog. US successfully launched a satellite 4
months later but the damage had been done as many believed a missile gap existed in USSR favor.
The NDEA and NASA were quickly established to reduce the “gap”. LIFE magazine reports worried
the American public. IKE knew USSR at that time had no long range bomber fleet capable of
dropping atomic bombs on US but for how long and soon USSR was to have ICBM’s.
K. A 2nd Berlin crisis erupted in 1959 when USSR gave US an ultimatum to get out of West Berlin in 6
months. IKE and Dulles refused and a Camp David meeting in Maryland Khrushev and IKE met and
Khrushev suspended the ultimatum.
L. Success of the Camp David meeting quickly evaporated as a USA U-2 SPY PLANE was shot down
over USSR in 1960. IKE at first denied the spying but later admitted to it. The upcoming Paris Peace
Conference scheduled for May 1960 was cancelled by Khrushev. Tensions escalated.
M. In 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew the pro US government in Cuba. IKE placed an embargo on Cuba
and Castro turned to USSR for aid and USSR gladly helped. USSR leader Khrushev said, “The
MONROE DOCTRINE is dead.” The alliance, Organization of American States, (OAS) condemned
communism in Latin America. IKE authorized a covert CIA operation to remove Castro from power
in Cuba but his 2nd term as President ended before implementation of it. The operation would be
decided by the next President = John F. Kennedy (JFK).
N. After Japan surrendered in WWII the region of Indochina was returned to France. France had colonized the region many years prior to WWII. Indochina wanted independence and did not want to return to French control after WWII. The US would not help Indochina. Indochina then turned to USSR and received aid financially and militarily as well as aid from China. France asked US for aid and US agreed to give money to help France get its colony back. Truman and IKE both sent millions of dollars to France to cover their war costs. In fact 80% of French war costs were paid by US. The US did not want another region to fall to communism like China did earlier. Truman and IKE refused to send US soldiers to fight with France and only sent military “advisors”. France was defeated at DIEN BIEN PHU Battle in 1954 and gave up their colony of Indochina. The 1st Geneva Conference in 1954 created countries within Indochina called Laos, Cambodia, and North and South Vietnam. Vietnam would be divided between North and South at the 17th PARALLEL. North Vietnam leader was Ho Chi Minh who supported USSR and communism. South Vietnam leader was Ngo Diem Diem who supported US although was a dictator. Ho Chi Minh sought a unified Vietnam led by communism and attacked South Vietnam. IKE implemented the DOMINO THEORY. The theory supported US involvement in the region because it was believed that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to communism then all countries would fall to communism. From 1955 to 1960 IKE sent money and military “advisors” to South Vietnam to stop communist takeover of the Vietnam and the region. IKE finished his 2nd term without settling the Vietnam issue and future Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, and Ford would all be involved in the Vietnam as well.
XII. In review, what were the numerous Cold War events and tensions that dominated the Presidencies of IKE
and TRUMAN both internationally and domestically.
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