CHAPTER 31



CHAPTER 31

To a New Conservatism, 1969–1988

Focus Questions

31.1 What were the major accomplishments and failures of the Nixon presidency?

31.2 How were oil and inflation linked during the 1970s?

31.3 How did private life change during this period?

31.4 Why did the presidencies of Ford and Carter largely fail?

31.5 What was the “Reagan revolution”?

31.6 How did Reagan reshape American foreign relations?

31.7 What has contributed to changes in the economy since 1970?

Chapter Outline

Introduction: Reagan and America’s Shift to the Right

31.1 The Tempting of Richard Nixon

31.1.1 Détente

31.1.2 Ending the Vietnam War

31.1.3 The Watergate Scandal

31.2 Oil and Inflation

31.2.1 War and Oil

31.2.2 The Great Inflation

31.3 Private Lives, Public Issues

31.3.1 The Changing American Family

31.3.2 Gains and Setbacks for Women

31.3.3 The Gay Liberation Movement

31.4 Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate

31.4.1 The Ford Administration

31.4.2 Carter and American Malaise

31.4.3 Troubles Abroad

31.5 The Reagan Revolution

31.5.1 The Election of 1980

31.5.2 Past and Present: Is Government the Solution or the Problem?

31.5.3 Cutting Taxes and Spending

31.6 Reagan and the World

31.6.1 Challenging the “Evil Empire”

31.6.2 Confrontation in Central America

31.6.3 Trading Arms for Hostages

31.6.4 Reagan the Peacemaker

31.7 Charting the Past: The Changing American Economy

31.7.1 2016: The Agricultural Workforce

31.7.2 THE MANUFACTURING WORKFORCE

31.7.3 THE SERVICE WORKFORCE

CONCLUSION: CHALLENGING THE NEW DEAL

Chapter Summary

INTRODUCTION: REAGAN AND AMERICA’S SHIFT TO THE RIGHT

RONALD REAGAN WAS ELECTED GOVERNOR OF CALIFORNIA IN 1966 AND AGAIN IN 1970. AS GOVERNOR, REAGAN WAS SURPRISINGLY PRAGMATIC, EVEN RAISING TAXES, AND WORKED WELL WITH A DEMOCRATIC LEGISLATURE. WITH THE RISE OF THE MORAL MAJORITY AND NEOCONSERVATISM IN THE 1970S, RONALD REAGAN OFFERED HOPE TO AN AMERICAN PUBLIC WEARY OF COLD WAR LIBERALISM.

31.1 The Tempting of Richard Nixon

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE NIXON PRESIDENCY?

Richard Nixon won a contentious election in 1968 and broke new ground in foreign policy but ended up resigning in disgrace.

31.1.1 Détente: Nixon and his closest foreign policy advisor, Henry Kissinger, based their approach to international issues on practicality and realism. They saw the Cold War as a traditional superpower rivalry to be managed, not won. They thought that America must make a strategic retreat. They planned to use trade and improved relations with China to neutralize Russia. Nixon visited China in February 1972, a prelude to America’s recognition of Communist China. This visit persuaded the Russians to agree to the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) treaty in Moscow in 1972. There seemed to be a genuine desire on both sides to reduce Cold War tensions.

31.1.2 Ending the Vietnam War: Nixon followed a three-part plan to get the United States out of Vietnam. He gradually reduced the number of American troops there while at the same time intensifying American bombing and adopting a hard line at the peace talks. His increased military pressure resulted in the 1970 bombing of Cambodia, which set off renewed antiwar protests, most notably at Kent State University, where four students were killed by the National Guard. However, the peace talks did progress. In January 1973, talks concluded with a truce that resulted in the U.S. government removing all of its troops from South Vietnam but allowing North Vietnam to keep its troops in the South, leading to Communist control of Vietnam in the future.

31.1.3 The Watergate Scandal: During the presidential campaign of 1972, the burglary of the Democratic Committee’s office in the Watergate complex by White House employees led to a cover-up. Although the Watergate burglary was kept out of the presidential campaign, the scandal became a major issue. When the Senate investigated, it discovered the existence of White House tapes, the contents of which quickly revealed Nixon’s involvement in the burglary. Nixon tried in vain to suppress this evidence, but the Supreme Court ruled that he had to hand over the tapes, and a House committee voted to recommend impeachment. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned. The crisis demonstrated how much the power of the executive branch had grown, but it also illustrated the vitality of American institutions. The press, the federal judiciary, and Congress had all behaved splendidly.

31.2 Oil and Inflation

HOW WERE OIL AND INFLATION LINKED DURING THE 1970S?

War in the Middle East interfered with the flow of oil into the United States, sparking an energy crisis and inflation.

31.2.1 War and Oil: In October 1973, the United States came to the defense of Israel when it was attacked by Egypt and Syria, leading the oil-producing Arab nations to cut oil production until their demands were met. The Arab oil embargo meant long lines at gas stations in America and wildly escalating prices for gas. The immediate crisis ended with a settlement of the war in the Middle East in March 1974, but the energy crisis did not end with the lifting of the embargo.

31.2.2 The Great Inflation: The rapid increase in oil prices affected other areas of the economy. The prices of homes, cars, food, and other items skyrocketed. Real income declined. Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter were unable to take effective action to stop the price rise, and it was finally left to the Federal Reserve to do so by raising interest rates.

31.3 Private Lives, Public Issues

HOW DID PRIVATE LIFE CHANGE DURING THIS PERIOD?

During the 1970s, the traditional, two-parent family continued to disappear in America, women increased their share of the workforce, and an active gay rights campaign for civil rights began.

31.3.1 The Changing American Family: From 1970 to 1990, fewer and fewer American families were headed by fathers who were sole breadwinners. Cohabitation without marriage became common and divorce rates doubled. At the same time, “family values” became a popular political slogan.

31.3.2 Gains and Setbacks for Women: The greatest change in the position of married women was their entry into the workplace. Some women achieved remarkable success, such as Sandra Day O’Connor, who was appointed as the first female Supreme Court justice. More women went into business for themselves. However, most women were relegated to low-paying jobs or to female-dominated fields, such as nursing, teaching, secretarial work, or waitressing. Women were paid only about 80 percent of what men were paid. Organized feminists, such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), pushed for an Equal Rights Amendment but failed. They were more successful in protecting the right to abortion recognized in Roe v. Wade, but abortion quickly became a highly controversial subject.

31.3.3 The Gay Liberation Movement: In 1969, gays and lesbians rioted against police brutality in New York City, sparking a more militant effort to end discrimination. The Gay Liberation Front and other organizations urged closeted homosexuals to take pride in their sexual orientation and to demand equal rights. By 1980, half the states had decriminalized homosexual acts and, also in 1980, the Democratic Party’s national platform included a gay rights plank. The onset of AIDS in the 1980s hurt the cause of gay liberation. Some homosexuals responded with violence, but most continued to use accepted political practices to push their agenda with some success. When Bill Clinton tried to carry out his campaign pledge to prohibit discrimination against gays in the armed forces, he had to back down, and the public remained extremely hostile to the idea of gay marriage. In 1996, President Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act, which permitted states not to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states.

31.4 Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate

WHY DID THE PRESIDENCIES OF FORD AND CARTER LARGELY FAIL?

The confrontation between the president and Congress over the Watergate affair made life in the White House challenging for subsequent presidents.

31.4.1 The Ford Administration: Gerald Ford shocked the nation by pardoning Nixon for any and all crimes he might have committed. The action eroded confidence in Ford’s leadership. After the disclosure of some of the illegal, covert operations of the Central Intelligence Agency during the Kennedy and Johnson years, Ford chose George H. W. Bush as the CIA’s new director and charged him with reforming the agency. Ford soured relations with the Democratic majority in Congress by opposing Democratic bills protecting the environment and education.

31.4.2 Carter and American Malaise: Jimmy Carter, the former governor of Georgia, won the presidency by campaigning as someone outside the political establishment, but he failed as a president because he lacked a clear political vision. In 1979 he publicly blamed the American people for a “national malaise” that very much reflected his own leadership weaknesses.

31.4.3 Troubles Abroad: After the defeat in Vietnam, the American people preferred an isolationist foreign policy, but Carter was inexorably pulled into intervention abroad. In Nicaragua and El Salvador, insurgencies put the United States in awkward positions of supporting either dictators or new leftist regimes; in the Middle East, he brokered a peace pact between Israel and Egypt. Carter’s greatest problem was with Iran, where a Muslim revolution ousted the shah in 1978, after which, in 1979, militants seized the U.S. embassy and held its personnel hostage for the rest of Carter’s term as president. A failed rescue effort reinforced the impression that the United States was becoming powerless.

31.5 The Reagan Revolution

WHAT WAS THE “REAGAN REVOLUTION”?

America became more conservative in reaction to the troubles of the 1960s and 1970s and a Republican victory was assured with Ronald Reagan.

31.5.1 The Election of 1980: Carter’s domestic and foreign policy problems, along with Reagan’s likeability, hurt Carter in the election. Reagan did well in the Republican strongholds—the West and South—but he even took many traditional Democratic votes among Jews and union members. Only African Americans remained solidly in the old New Deal coalition. Reagan’s election marked a Republican presidential realignment after decades of Democratic dominance.

31.5.2 Past and Present: Is Government the Solution or the Problem? Although twenty-first-century Americans hold government in low esteem, they still rely on government programs and are not willing to give up Social Security, Medicare, and certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act.

31.5.3 Cutting Taxes and Spending: Reagan promised to downsize the federal government and immediately began to carry out that promise. He believed in supply-side economics, which supported tax cuts in the private sector in order to build an economic boom that would make up for lost tax revenue. He persuaded Congress to cut the income tax by 25 percent over three years and to cut spending on various social programs by more than $40 billion. Reagan’s economic program had mixed results.

31.6 Reagan and the World

HOW DID REAGAN RESHAPE AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS?

To restore America’s international position, Reagan wanted to increase America’s defenses and recapture world supremacy.

31.6.1 Challenging the “Evil Empire”: Reagan expanded the military, and by 1985 the defense budget exceeded $300 billion. Believing that the Soviet Union was “the evil empire” and had to be overcome, Reagan took a hard line and abandoned détente. The United States deployed cruise missiles in Europe and began development of a “Star Wars” antimissile system. The Russians responded by deploying more land-based ICBMs.

31.6.2 Confrontation in Central America: In the past, the United States had often backed right-wing dictatorships over leftist groups advocating reform. However, many times, dictators’ oppressive rule drove reformers to revolution. In Nicaragua, Reagan removed American economic aid extended by Carter and, as the Sandinistas moved closer to Cuba and the Soviet Union, used covert action to supply Contra rebels.

31.6.3 Trading Arms for Hostages: Reagan acquiesced in the sale of advanced weapons to Iran in the hope that the Iranians would use their influence to free some Americans held hostage in Lebanon. Proceeds from an arms deal with Iran was used to finance guerrilla forces in Nicaragua, in direct violation of a congressional law prohibiting such aid. When these covert operations were exposed in 1986, lower-ranking officials took total responsibility for the actions. Although Reagan was shielded from blame, his reputation was tarnished.

31.6.4 Reagan the Peacemaker: Mikhail Gorbachev’s rise to power in Russia allowed Reagan to adopt a more conciliatory attitude. The two leaders agreed to eliminate all intermediate-range missiles. In addition, the Soviets moved out of Afghanistan and worked with the United States to pressure Iran and Iraq to end their long war. Reagan’s handling of foreign policy with the Soviets restored his immense popularity as he left office.

31.7 Charting the Past: The Changing American Economy

What has contributed to changes in the economy since 1970?

Although the agricultural and manufacturing sectors of the economy have shrunk in size, service-related jobs have increased as America has become more of a postindustrial society.

31.7.1 2016: The Agricultural Workforce: The agricultural workforce has declined because of increased productivity. Although family-operated farms produce the majority of agricultural products, the number of large commercial farms has grown.

31.7.2 THE MANUFACTURING WORKFORCE: ALTHOUGH MANUFACTURING JOBS REPRESENT A LARGE PORTION OF THE ECONOMY, THE NUMBER OF JOBS HAS DECLINED SINCE THE 1980S. THE MANUFACTURE OF COMPUTERS AND ELECTRONICS HAS GROWN, BUT SO TOO HAS THE MOVEMENT OF MANUFACTURING FACILITIES ABROAD. BOTH FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS AND AUTOMATION WERE BLAMED FOR THE LOSS IN MANUFACTURING JOBS.

31.7.3 THE SERVICE WORKFORCE: A SHIFT FROM MANUFACTURING TO SERVICE-RELATED JOBS BEGAN IN THE 1980S. SERVICE JOBS INCLUDE THOSE IN HEALTH CARE, EDUCATION, FINANCE, TELECOMMUNICATIONS, RETAIL, AND LEISURE.

CONCLUSION: CHALLENGING THE NEW DEAL

DESPITE THE TROUBLES OF HIS LAST TWO YEARS IN OFFICE, REAGAN RESHAPED AMERICAN POLITICS. HE MADE IT CLEAR THAT THE AMERICAN PEOPLE SHOULD RELY LESS ON THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND MORE ON PRIVATE ENTERPRISE TO MAKE SOCIETY WORK.

Key Terms

Introduction

o Moral Majority: In 1979, the Reverend Jerry Falwell founded the Moral Majority to combat “amoral liberals,” drug abuse, “coddling” of criminals, homosexuality, Communism, and abortion. The Moral Majority represented the rise of political activism among organized religion’s radical right wing.

o Neoconservatism: Former liberals who advocated a strong stand against Communism abroad and free market capitalism at home. These intellectuals stressed the positive values of American society in contrast to those liberals who emphasized social problems.

31.1

o détente: President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger pursued a policy of détente with the Soviet Union to lessen the possibility of nuclear war in the 1970s. Détente is a French word meaning “a relaxation of tension.”

o Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): In 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union culminated four years of SALT by signing a treaty limiting the deployment of antiballistic missiles (ABMs) and an agreement to freeze the number of offensive missiles for five years.

o Watergate Scandal: A break-in at the Democratic National Committee offices in the Watergate complex in Washington was carried out under the direction of White House employees. Disclosure of the White House involvement in the break-in and subsequent cover-up forced President Richard Nixon to resign in 1974.

31.2

o Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): A cartel of oil-exporting nations.

31.3

o Equal Rights Amendment: A proposed constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 to guarantee women equal treatment under the law. The amendment failed to be ratified in 1982.

o Roe v. Wade: The 1973 Supreme Court decision that women have a constitutional right to abortion during the early stages of pregnancy.

31.4

o Camp David Accords: In 1978, President Jimmy Carter mediated a peace agreement between the leaders of Egypt and Israel at Camp David. In 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty based on the accords.

o Iran hostage crisis: In 1979, Iranian fundamentalists seized the American embassy in Tehran and held 53 Americans hostage. The hostages were released on January 20, 1981, the day Ronald Reagan became president.

31.5

o supply-side economics: The theory that tax cuts would stimulate the economy by giving individuals more incentive to earn more money, which would lead to greater investment and eventually larger tax revenues at a lower rate.

31.6

o Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Popularly known as “Star Wars,” President Ronald Reagan’s SDI proposed to construct an elaborate computer-controlled antimissile defense system capable of destroying enemy missiles in outer space.

o Iran-Contra affair: The Iran-Contra affair involved officials in the Reagan administration secretly and illegally selling arms to Iran and using the proceeds to finance the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.

o Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF): Signed by President Ronald Reagan and Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in late 1987, this agreement provided for the destruction of all intermediate-range nuclear missiles and permitted on-site inspection for the first time during the Cold War.

Shared Writing and Journal Prompts

31.1 The Tempting of Richard Nixon

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE NIXON PRESIDENCY?

NIXON OPENED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CHINA AND INITIATED DÉTENTE WITH THE SOVIET UNION. HE WITHDREW AMERICAN TROOPS FROM VIETNAM, TERMINATING A QUARTER-CENTURY OF AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT. HOWEVER, HIS ROLE IN THE WATERGATE SCANDAL LED TO A CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS THAT FORCED HIM FROM OFFICE IN DISGRACE.

31.2 Oil and Inflation

HOW WERE OIL AND INFLATION LINKED DURING THE 1970S?

In the 1970s, turmoil in the Middle East and a growing demand for oil caused oil prices to jump dramatically. Those rising oil prices contributed to rising prices in other areas of the economy, eventually leading to inflation.

31.3 Private Lives, Public Issues

HOW DID PRIVATE LIFE CHANGE DURING THIS PERIOD?

The divorce rate rose significantly, and the number of married couples with children declined. More women entered the professions, and Roe v. Wade guaranteed their right to an abortion. Gay men and lesbians achieved greater freedom than before, though they still lacked certain rights accorded to heterosexuals.

31.4 Politics and Diplomacy after Watergate

WHY DID THE PRESIDENCIES OF FORD AND CARTER LARGELY FAIL?

FORD AND CARTER HAD TO DEAL WITH THE AFTERMATH OF VIETNAM AND WATERGATE AND THE ECONOMIC DISRUPTIONS THAT FOLLOWED THE OIL PRICE INCREASES OF THE 1970S. FORD ALIENATED MANY AMERICANS BY PARDONING NIXON, AND CARTER STRUGGLED WITH THE HOSTAGE CRISIS IN IRAN.

31.5 The Reagan Revolution

WHAT WAS THE “REAGAN REVOLUTION”?

The Reagan revolution was the return to conservatism in American politics and diplomacy that started with Reagan’s 1980 election as president. Reagan pledged to reduce the role of government in American life and restore American honor and confidence abroad.

Past and Present: Is Government the Solution or the Problem?

In what ways are programs like Social Security and Medicare simultaneously solutions to and causes of problems for the American people?

Social Security and Medicare are programs that provide security to Americans as they grow older, funded by payments from current workers. However, as baby boomers grow older, they put a strain on the system, taking out more money than is deposited by workers and leading to a deficit.

Shared Writing

What government programs touch your life?

Answers will vary, but here is a possible response: All workers pay into Social Security and Medicare, with the plan that when they retire they will receive payments to help them live once they are no longer working and receiving a paycheck.

31.6 Reagan and the World

HOW DID REAGAN RESHAPE AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS?

REAGAN REJECTED DÉTENTE AND CHALLENGED THE SOVIET UNION MORE DIRECTLY THAN ANY AMERICAN PRESIDENT HAD IN DECADES. HE CALLED FOR THE CREATION OF THE SDI MISSILE SYSTEM, AND HE WAGED COVERT WAR AGAINST LEFTISTS IN CENTRAL AMERICA. THE IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, IN WHICH REAGAN TRADED ARMS FOR HOSTAGES, TARNISHED HIS REPUTATION, BUT HE ALSO NEGOTIATED THE INF TREATY WITH THE SOVIET UNION.

31.7 Charting the Past: The Changing American Economy

What has contributed to changes in the economy since 1970?

Technology has increased agricultural yields and contributed to a shrinking agricultural workforce. Technology and free trade agreements contributed to the loss of manufacturing jobs. Service jobs have increased as America has moved toward a postindustrial society.

Class Activities

1. CAMPAIGNING FOR PRESIDENT: STUDENTS WILL CREATE CAMPAIGN MATERIALS FOR ONE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION, THAT OF 1972, 1976, 1980 OR 1984. SHOW STUDENTS EXAMPLES OF CAMPAIGN MATERIALS FROM OTHER ELECTIONS, SUCH AS BUTTONS, POSTERS, AND BUMPER STICKERS. PLACE STUDENTS IN GROUPS OF THREE AND ASSIGN EACH GROUP ONE OF THE CANDIDATES FROM ONE OF THE ELECTIONS DESCRIBED IN THE CHAPTER. THE MAJOR 1972 ELECTION CANDIDATES ARE RICHARD NIXON, GEORGE MCGOVERN, AND JOHN HOSPERS. THE MAJOR 1976 ELECTION CANDIDATES WERE JIMMY CARTER AND GERALD FORD. THE MAJOR 1980 ELECTION CANDIDATES WERE RONALD REAGAN, JIMMY CARTER, AND JOHN B. ANDERSON. THE MAJOR 1984 ELECTION CANDIDATES WERE RONALD REAGAN AND WALTER MONDALE. EACH GROUP WILL DESIGN A BUTTON, A BUMPER STICKER, AND A SMALL POSTER. HAVE THE CLASS SHARE THEIR CAMPAIGN MATERIALS AND DISCUSS WHAT STRATEGIES THEY USED TO DECIDE WHAT TO HIGHLIGHT ABOUT THEIR CANDIDATE.

2. FOREIGN POLICY IN CENTRAL AMERICA: CREATE GROUPS OF TWO TO THREE STUDENTS EACH AND ASSIGN EACH GROUP ONE OF THE TROUBLE SPOTS IN CENTRAL AMERICA DURING THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION. EXAMPLE COUNTRIES INCLUDE GUATEMALA, HAITI, JAMAICA, NICARAGUA, EL SALVADOR, GRENADA, PANAMA, AND PANAMA CANAL. STUDENTS WILL CREATE A SHORT PRESENTATION OF TWO TO THREE SLIDES EACH EXPLAINING AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE AREA. SLIDES SHOULD INCLUDE THE CAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTY, ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE UNITED STATES, THE SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM OUTCOME OF THE INTERVENTION FOR BOTH AMERICA AND THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COUNTRY, AND SEVERAL RELEVANT IMAGES, ONE OF WHICH SHOULD BE A MAP OF THE AREA.

3. NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT: AFTER STUDENTS READ THE NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA) IN CHARTING THE PAST: THE CHANGING AMERICAN ECONOMY, WHICH APPEARS ONLY IN REVEL, HAVE THEM DEBATE WHETHER CONTINUING THE AGREEMENT IS IN THE BEST INTEREST OF THE CURRENT AMERICAN ECONOMY. REQUIRE STUDENTS TO READ ONE OR TWO RECENT ARTICLES ABOUT NAFTA BEFORE THE DISCUSSION AND HAVE THEM JUSTIFY THEIR CLAIMS WITH SPECIFIC EVIDENCE FROM THE NEWS ARTICLES.

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